What is the economic effect of illicit drug use in england and wales?

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What are the economic effects of illicit drug use in England and Wales?

The first and most obvious affect that the illicit use of drugs must have on the economy is the affect that non-subscription drugs have on the health of the labour force. There have been various studies on the psychological and physical affects of illicit drug use and any absenteeism caused by the effects will have an adverse affect on productivity. This absenteeism can also cause lower wages, as lower productivity will naturally lead to a fall in the wage rate for the labour force. Having said this it seems logical that illicit drug use among the employed would be low. This assumption is upheld by the British Crime Survey which showed that drug use was much less prevalent among the employed that among the unemployed. This would seem to make rational sense, however as shown by Bretteville (1) the illicit taking of certain drugs is not rational. He stated that, that there are two types of approaches to 'addictive behaviour'. The first is the myopic addictive approach this means that consumers will ignore the effect on future utility. This means of course that irrational decisions are likely to be taken. Then there is the rational addiction approach. This states that those taking the drugs take account of the future effects of current consumption when determining the optimal amount of the good to take in the present. Having said this it becomes obvious that the consumption of drugs such as heroin and crack cocaine cannot be rational. Why then are seemingly rational consumers behaving in an economically irrational way? Becker and Murphy offer a possible solution They stated that consumers time preference rates have a great deal to do with illicit drug taking. People with high time preferences for the present are more likely to have sub-optimal consumption levels. That is, those who want to satisfy their utility now are more likely to show myopic addictive behaviour. Strong addictive behaviour, such as that shown by drug addicts, requires a large effect of previous consumption of the good on present consumption. The time preference rate is usually expressed as the marginal rate of substitution between present and future utility, that is, the amount of the good that is the amount of units of the good that the consumer is prepared to give up in the future to have one more unit now. Thus the higher the value for the time preference rate then the higher the consumers desire for satisfaction in the present and the more likely they are a to display addictive behaviour. To arrive at this model Becker and Murphy have made three assumptions the first is that all time preferences are stable. This means that if consumers have higher preferences for the present then they will stay that way and then it is assumed that there is a large interpersonal variation in the size of time preference rate. Finally it is assumed that people with a high time preference rate are more likely to become addicted to drug taking. Becker and Murphy state that as with most goods the consumption of drugs are based on consumers utility function current and expected prices, income, initial stock of consumption capital, depreciation rate of consumption capital and consumers time preference rate. Having said this Becker and Murphy emphasized that there may be multiple points of equilibrium on the same utility function reflecting how the consumer may have different levels of consumption of the addictive good at different times as this reflects how many drug addicts tend to go on 'binges' or may go 'cold turkey' to try and get off a certain drug.

The first major insight into drug use in the UK came with the British crime survey that was first conducted in 1. However the original survey was considered fairly unsuitable for analysis compared to more updated surveys conducted in '4 and '6. The British Crime Survey (BCS) was a household survey given to 1,00 people across England and Wales. In this survey there were three questions pertaining to use of 1 of the most used illicit drugs that fall into the three classes as defined by the 171 Misuse of Drugs Act. That is hard or classes A drugs such as crack ecstasy and heroin, and soft or class b and c drugs such as cannabis, amphetamines and unprescribed tranquillisers. The three questions asked about each drug in the survey were as follows

1. Have you ever taken [DRUG] even if it was a long time ago?

. In the last 1 months have you ever taken [DRUG]

. In the last three months have you taken [DRUG]?

These questions are intended to provide information on the lifetime use and any relationship between that and current or recent use. This survey was the most comprehensive of its kind with the largest study group. There had been other studies on the nature of drug use in England and Wales such as Parker and Measham (14) and Leitner et al's 'four cities survey' in 1. However these had much smaller sample sizes and thus the BCS was the clearest indication so far into the illicit use of drugs in England and Wales. However there are some problems with the BCS in relation to answering the question of the economic affect of illicit drug taking, as we shall see.

The first and most obvious problem is that the BCS is a survey. The subject of drugs is still a very sensitive one and the propensity for inaccurate or dishonest answers is very real. The other main problem is perhaps less obvious. It occurs in the order of the survey's questions. The survey is aimed at discovering two types of drug use past use, and recent use (within a year of the survey). With this in mind the order of the questions makes it impossible to separate past and recent drug use. In fact it is only possible to observe three rather than four possible usage scenarios. That is that the interviewee has never used the drug (i.e. they answered no to the 'ever' question) or that they have only used the drug in the past (i.e. yes to the 'ever' question and no to the 'past year' question). The third possibility is that the response to both questions was yes which would indicate ongoing drug use. The simple answer to this problem would be to re-order the questions in the survey. If the 'ever' question was asked after the 'past year' question more information would instantly become available. Instead of the three possibilities we can observe four. The same three previous observational possibilities, plus a fourth, which would be ascertained if the answer to both questions was yes. This would indicate that there was past and current drug use and could greatly affect any policies that could be installed from this information. Without these observations it becomes virtually impossible to assess any ongoing or escalating drug use problem and thus makes it very difficult to ascertain the economic impact of any change in drug taking behaviour. This is a particular problem, as any economic affect of illicit drug taking will need to be separated into occasional recreational drug use and chronic constant abuse.

Having said outlined the problems with the British crime Survey we must now discuss what can be learned form its results. The first major finding of the survey was the extent of illicit drug taking in this country. The results show that over a quarter of the observed sample have tried at least one drug at some point in their life. Furthermore this can be presumed to be a 'conservative' result as there is bound to be a certain amount of underreporting in the survey due to its sensitive subject nature.

To assess what effects economic illicit drug taking has we must also consider how economic circumstances affect illicit drug taking. The British Crime Survey cannot take into account emotional circumstances and other situations such as other studies did (e.g. Stenbacka et al). However it does indicate that low income unemployed males that are frequent drinkers are the most likely to consume illicit drugs. With this in mind it seems that the economics is affecting the taking of illicit drugs. However if unemployment is positively related to drug consumption this will adversely affect the economy as a whole. Peck and Plant argued that drug use fostered unemployment. The unemployed involved in frequent drug taking are naturally going to find it harder to find a job and earn higher income thus the government will not only be losing out on tax revenue but also on benefit payments. It is also widely reported that drug addiction is linked to crime; many addicts will steal to 'feed their addiction'. It is estimated that the crime as a result of illicit drug taking has cost the UK £1.5 billion pounds a year. In the US the regulation of cocaine alone has cost the government $0billion dollars in one year. The most major problem that arises from drug abuse would be the one of health. Thus it makes sense to observe the statistics that link drug abuse to missed workdays. It was estimated in 1 that alcohol abuse and drug abuse combined to cause a total of 14 million missed workdays a year. It makes sense to assume that if frequent drug users are constantly taking days off work then, 'assuming workers receive the value of their marginal product as pay, this reduced productivity will manifest itself through lower wages'. Therefore if there is a relationship between drug abuse and days off then it should follow that groups with lower wages are more likely to take illicit drugs. There is a flaw in this argument. That is that there are innumerable factors that could cause low wages and having drug abuse, as the only independent variable could be misleading. The main problem would be the simultaneous causation between drug use and low wages. In other words low wages could be causing the drug use or the drug use could be causing the low wages. With this in mind we must examine the evidence of the impact of drugs on the labour force. Kenkel and Ribar (NLSY) found that there was a negative association between use of marijuana and the amount of labour hours supplied by young men in America in 14. However the US national household survey on drug abuse found 'no significant relationship between past month labour supply and the use of cigarettes, alcohol or cocaine'. Indeed the conclusion of the report was that there is little evidence of a relationship between labour supply and drug use. These conflicting results may well be due to the fact that Kenkel and Ribar allowed for the endogeneity of the two variables however the US national survey conducted extensive tests for the exogeneity of the two variables. In fact there are many studies that show that once endogeneity has been taken into account wages and drug use are actually positively related. Gill and Michaels (1), Register and Williams (1) and Kaestner (11) all found that drug use and high wages were positively correlated. Having said this in 14 Kaestner conducted another study using the same data as the NLSY study. This time the longitudinal results suggest that any correlation between drug use and wage level varies greatly. The variations follow the differences between the individual and the type of drug in question. For example it was found that there was a positive relationship between cocaine use and wage level for females and a negative relationship between marijuana use and wages for males. It is now becoming obvious that this is a very difficult subject to quantify. Is it possible therefore to learn more from accident rates or productivity? Once again we find that any immediate discoveries will be very hard to come by. Many studies have been aimed at finding out lost productivity caused by drug use (Rice et al 10, Normand et al 14) but these studies were found to be too broad in there assumptions. Thus national level data can be hard to use, however smaller more individual samples have overturned some interesting facts. Dawson (14) found that the use of illicit drugs is consistent with a higher risk of workplace accidents while Kandel and Yamaguchi (187) found that drug abuse lead to a greater number of absences and a greater risk of being fired or resigning from a job. It seems on the whole that drug use has a positive relationship with the increased number of accidents in the workplace. Workers who have tested positive for marijuana, cocaine and other drugs were five times more likely to suffer reportable accident s at work than those who tested negative according to Crouch et al. (18). The occurrence of accidents is not only a nuisance but also an expensive proposition to businesses in this country. Even workers who are not involved in drug taking can be affected by accidents caused by drug users and this will result in time lost and thus revenue lost to the firm and the economy as a whole.

There can be no denial that the taking of illicit drugs in England and Wales is having a negative effect on the economy. Whether it is through costs to the NHS, social security, police force or business productivity the cost of drugs is enormous. It is estimated in a study conducted in 1 by the IPD that the use of illicit drugs costs the UK a total of £800 million each year. The answer to this problem may lie in legalisation rather than prohibition. The campaign for legalisation has been a very high profile one over the past few years. While it is inconceivable that all drugs will be legalised in the near future it seems that economically at least this may be a sound policy. To use the United Sates as an example, Jeffrey Mirron (Boston University) has suggested that the legislation of drugs could save the federal budget up to $4 billion through tax revenue from a controlled dugs market. Obviously the social and ethical issues surrounding legalisation will have enormous effect but from an economic viewpoint it seems like a possible solution to a very difficult problem.

Bibliography

Caulkins, Johnson, Taylor, Taylor, Journal of Drug issues 'Drug Use, Workplace accidents and employee turnover'. J. Hoffman , C. Larison. 1

Macdonald, Z. 'Illicit Drug use, unemployment and occupational attainment' 000

Dr Simper, R. 'Economics of Criminology' 001

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Discourse on Islam

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Islam is pure, perfect and clear

For those who embrace, shall have no fear

Its from the Creator of man, and the universe

Our life on earth, is as in the verse

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I have not created jinn and man, save to worship me

Yet He bestows His Mercy, how could this be?

It is the love of Allah, for His creatures

After all Most Merciful, is one of His features

And the pillars of Islam, they amount to five

To implement them all, we shall strive

The first of them, is comprised of two

Allah is One, and His Messenger to you

It is this that stands, as a strong foundation

Making the Prophets Ummah, the best of nations

Upon this condition, you enter this Deen

Propagating this Creed, makes you more keen

The second of them, stand forth in Prayer

Only five each day, miss them dont dare!

The prophet narrated, in a certain hadith

Leaving prayers can lead, to disbelief!

We come to the third, as Zakaat it is known

So distribute you wealth, as Muhamed had shown

And those who give, for Allahs sake

Their wealth decreases not, make no mistake!

The fourth we know, Ramadan we must Fast

Obstain from food, until light has passed

But not just stomachs, we must restrain

Hearing and seeing, haram we obstain

So in the pillars, four have passed

Its time to recall, and state the last

Its the pilgrimage, to Hajj we make

If youre able to do so, for Allahs sake

But dont be fooled, for Allah knows

If youve the means, but just dont go

Its bounties are greater, than may appear

A command from Lord, surely Allah we fear

That covers them all, you can count on your hand

A burden theyre not, like a grain of sand

They are personal fards, as you will find

Now establish Islam, for all mankind!

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Contrasting identical twins

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Most people think of identical twins as being physically,intellectually,and emotionally identical,but this may not always be the case.I know identical twins who are so different in personality that no one ever confuses them.although diane and dana are identical twins,they are different in their attitudes toward school,their taste in clothing,and their choices of boyfrinds. Diane dana are seniors in high school,but their academic records are completly different.Diane loves to learn;she is in the National Honor Society;she takes advanced courses;and she genuinely likes her teachers.Dana hates school,she never makes the honor roll,she takes regular courses instead of advanced courses,and she dislikes all teachers. Diane and Dana never dress alike.Diane dresses conservatively with long skirts,loose pants and high necklins;Dianes swimsuit is A modest one-piece model.Dana wears wild, eyecatching outfits with short skirts,tight pants,and plunging necklines;Danas swimsuit is a bikini. Dianes and Danas dates reflect their different personalities.Dianesnice guys would be appreciated by parents everywhere.Most of Dianes dates are churchgoing,honor students,and her parents like them very much.However,Danascriminaltypes usually have police records;they are frightening to her parents. Diane and Dana are physically identical,but they are so different in personality that no one ever confuses them.Their conrasting personalities are obvious in they both have different attitudes toward school,they both have different taste in clothing,and they both have different choices of boyfrinds.

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Crazy Courage

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Crazy Courage

In her poem, "Crazy Courage," Alma Luz Villanueva asserts that nonconformist

behavior takes immense courage. She is first introduced to Michael B. when he enters her fiction class dressed, as any man would be, in men's clothing. "Moved by the gentleness of his masculinity," she notices the same mild mannered man dressed in a "mini skirt, high boots…and purple tights" enter her poetry class. Daringly carrying "a single, living, red rose, in a vase, to the podium," he "shock[s] the young, seen-it-all MTV crowd-into silence." Not only is it difficult for the visitors to accept his distinctly different attire, but also his mannerisms involving the rose. The sixth stanza describes Michael as having "perfect dignity" while offering this red rose to all those in the crowd vividly watching him. No doubt the awe-struck congregation curiously awaits to investigate the motives of Michael, the scantily clad fellow. And as he holds the rose innocently above the people, he is filled with pride. Not because he feels he is any better than them, but because he wants to offer his way of living to all those who are unwilling to accept his innocent presence. Even to the people "who would kill him, and to those who would love him," Michael expresses his unconventional behavior to both. Strange as is may be to them, he is stronger than anyone who discriminates against him. He knows what he likes and he knows who he is. He has "the crazy courage to be whole, as a rose is whole, as a child is whole." We realize that the nonconformity he cherishes takes immense courage, and he should not be punished for the standards which the visitors believe in, no matter how much they think they are right.

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Pharmacy Technician

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WHAT IS A PHARMACY TECHNICIAN?

A PHARMACY TECHNICIAN is an individual who, under the direct supervision and control of a pharmacist, performs packaging, manipulative, repetitive, or other non-discretionary tasks related to the processing of a prescription in a licensed pharmacy, but excludes all functions restricted to a registered pharmacist. To work as a pharmacy technician in California, you must possess and keep current registration as a pharmacy technician. It takes approximately six weeks to issue a pharmacy technician permit after submission of a complete application package. The board will notify you if it needs additional information.

Effective January 1, 000, an applicant for registration as a pharmacy technician must be a high school graduate or possess a general education development (GED) equivalent AND meet one of the qualification methods (described below). If you were registered as a pharmacy technician in the past and are reapplying, you must meet the educational requirement.

HOW TO APPLY TO BECOME A PHARMACY TECHNICIAN Write your Pharmacy Technician research paper

Your application must include the following

1. A non-refundable fee of $50.

. A completed Application for Registration as a Pharmacy

Technician (17A-5), with all questions answered. You must

sign this form and attach a photograph.

. A copy of Request for Live Scan Service Form verifying that

your fingerprints have been scanned and all applicable fees paid.

4. Documentation demonstrating that you have completed the

qualification requirements

5. Yellow postcard that you have addressed to yourself (this is

your notification that the board has received your application).

QUALIFYING METHODS AND REQUIRED DOCUMENTS

Identify which of the following methods qualifies you for registration as a pharmacy technician, and submit the required document(s) for that method

M e t h o d A

At least an associate of arts degree in a field of study directly related to the duties performed by a pharmacy technician. Directly related fields of study include; but are not limited to, health sciences, biological sciences, physical sciences, or natural sciences.

Submit An official transcript, indicating date of graduation and degree earned, must be sent DIRECTLY to this office from the school(s) you attended.

M e t h o d B

Completion of a training course accredited by the American Society of Health System Pharmacists (ASHP); training provided by a branch of the federal armed forces; or any other course that provides a minimum of 40 hours of theoretical and practical instruction, provided that at least 10 of these hours are in theoretical instruction.

S u b m i t If the course you attended was accredited by the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP), submit the original certificate displaying the ASHP accreditation seal. If your training was provided by a branch of the federal armed services, submit the original certificate or a certified true copy of your DD14. If you completed any other course, you must request that the course provider send us a transcript or other documentation indicating the date of completion and the number of hours completed in theoretical and practical instruction. Copies of diplomas cannot be accepted.

M e t h o d C

Eligible to take the boards pharmacist licensure examination.

S u b m i t Identify yourself as being a candidate for the licensure examination on the face of the application.

M e t h o d D

At least one year of experience (to include a minimum of 1,500 hours) performing the tasks of a pharmacy technician as outlined in section 17. of the California Code of Regulations in an inpatient hospital, correctional facility, federal installation, out-of-state retail or hospital pharmacy, or within the last three years, as a registered pharmacy technician in California.

S u b m i t Experience affidavit (17A-10) completed by the pharmacist(s) having direct knowledge of your experience certifying that you have completed a minimum of 1,500 hours performing the duties of a pharmacy technician in an inpatient hospital, correctional facility; federal installation, out-of-state retail or hospital pharmacy, or within the last three years, as a registered pharmacy technician in California. If the qualifying experience was obtained in more than one pharmacy, each employer must complete an experience affidavit. Out-of-state pharmacy technicians must request that the board of pharmacy of the state where the experience was gained verify the license status of the pharmacy and the pharmacist completing the experience affidavit. The verification must be sent directly to this office by the out of state board. Failure to do so will delay the issuance of your registration.

M e t h o d E

A minimum of 1,500 hours experience working in a community or outpatient pharmacy performing the duties of a clerk-typist, as specified in section 17. of the California Code of Regulations.

S u b m i t Equivalent experience affidavit (17A-6) certifying to the completion of at least 1,500 hours experience within the last three years in an outpatient or community pharmacy. The form must be completed by the pharmacist having direct knowledge of your experience. If the qualifying experience was obtained in more than one pharmacy, each employer must complete an experience affidavit.

RENEWAL OF REGISTRATION

Approximately six weeks prior to the expiration date of the technician registration, a renewal application is mailed to the last known address of record. It is your responsibility to renew in a timely manner regardless of whether you receive a courtesy renewal notice.

The renewal application and fee are to be returned to the board office allowing sufficient time for processing. Currently it takes approximately 4 to 5 weeks for processing.

CHANGE OF NAME AND/OR ADDRESS

You are required to notify the board of any change in name or address within 0 days. Change of name and/or address may be made on the renewal notice or in writing to the board. Any change of name must be supported with one of the following

Copy of marriage certificate.

Copy of court document authorizing a legal name change.

Clear copy of driver's license and social security card.

ADDRESS CHANGES CANNOT BE ACCEPTED BY E-MAIL - the board must receive a document which bears the applicant/licensee signature in order to change an official address of record.

DUPLICATE/REPLACEMENT LICENSE

If a license has been misplaced or lost, a duplicate license will be issued upon receipt of a complete. Application for Reissue of License and $0 reissue fee.

If you fail to receive a license, the board will reissue a replacement after sufficient time has elapsed for delivery by the postal service. A completed Request for Duplicate/Replacement License, certifying under penalty of perjury that the license has not received, must be received before the printing of a new license will be requested.

RETIRED PHARMACISTS

A pharmacist who has been licensed in California for 0 years or longer and who holds a current, renewable license that is not suspended, revoked, or otherwise disciplined or subject to pending discipline, may request that the license be placed on retired status. A pharmacist holding a retired license cannot engage in any activity for which an active license is required. The retired license does not need to be renewed. However, to restore the license to active status, the pharmacist must take and pass the examination required for initial licensure.

BEING A PRECEPTOR

A preceptor is a pharmacist, licensed in good standing, who accepts the responsibility and takes the time to educate and train an intern in practical experiences. The preceptor is ultimately responsible for the professional activities performed by the intern while under his or her supervision.

When considering whether to serve as a preceptor ask yourself

What is the breadth of my experience as a pharmacist

and can I share this with an intern?

Do I actively participate in continuing education programs

and preceptor training conferences?

Am I able to spend time providing instruction to an intern?

Am I able to use effective communication skills from which

the intern can learn?

The setting in which you practice is as important as your willingness to teach. The ideal pharmacy for pharmacy interns incorporates practices and attitudes befitting the professional activities that are performed. It has an adequate set of reference materials, a computerized patient profile system, sufficient clerical help to enable you time to work with the intern, and a clean and inviting environment. The pharmacy should exemplify the highest standards of the profession.

CANCELLATION OF REGISTRATION

A pharmacy technician registration may be cancelled 60 days after the expiration date. If a technician registration is cancelled, it may not be renewed. Returning to work as a technician in California will require the submission of a new application with the appropriate fees and meeting the current requirements.

Things You Always Wanted to Know

About the Board of Pharmacy

but were afraid to ask!

What is the California State Board of Pharmacy?

The California Board of Pharmacy was formed in 181 to function as a state health regulatory agency. In 171, the Board became part of the Department of Consumer Affairs, which is part of the executive branch of the government of the State of California.

The Board of Pharmacy consists of 11 members who are appointed to four year terms. Members can serve only two terms. The governor appoints seven registered pharmacists who reside in different parts of the state and two public members. The Senate Rules Committee and the Speaker of the Assembly each appoint one public member. Public members are not licentiates of this Board or any other Board under this division.

Members of the Board appoint the executive officer who directs the Boards operations and oversees a staff of 50, including 18 inspectors who are registered pharmacists.

The Board is totally self-funded and receives no tax money from the General Revenue Fund of the State of California. Funds necessary for its operation are generated primarily through its licensing fees.

What is the Boards purpose?

The Boards purpose is to serve the public by

Protecting the health, safety, and welfare of the people of California with integrity and honesty;

Advocating the highest quality of affordable pharmaceutical care;

Providing the best available information on pharmaceutical care; and

Promoting education, wellness and quality of life.

How does the Board accomplish its purpose?

The Board accomplishes its purpose by ensuring that pharmacists provide patients with pharmaceutical care by dispensing information; by protecting patients from drug misadventures; and by taking responsibility for therapeutic outcomes resulting from their decisions.

The Board further ensures that

The quality skills of those entering pharmacy practice are maintained by requiring candidates for the Boards licensing examination to have graduated from accredited pharmacy schools and have completed a minimum of 1,500 hours of internship in both community and hospital pharmacies. Additionally, continuing education is required for pharmacist license renewal.

The Boards enforcement of regulations is another way in which the Board seeks to protect the public from the misuse and diversion of prescription drugs from pharmacies.

The Boards enforcement efforts are focused toward the improvement of therapeutic outcomes and compliance with the highest standards of pharmaceutical care.

Who does the Board regulate?

The Board of Pharmacy regulates the pharmacy practice of pharmacists, interns, pharmacy technicians, and exemptees (those who are involved with the wholesale or manufacturer of drugs and medical devices, but not required to hold a pharmacist license).

The Board also regulates all types of firms that distribute prescription drugs and devices in California, including community pharmacies and those located in hospitals, clinics, home and community support services facilities, and out-of-state

How does the Board resolve complaints?

A primary way the Board protects the public is through the investigation of consumer inquiries and complaints involving the pharmaceutical care patients have received. The Board advocates and enforces laws that protect the health and safety of patients and encourages the submission of complaints and inquiries from the public.

Each complaint is evaluated to determine if the complaint involves a pharmacist, pharmacy, or firm regulated by the Board, and whether the complaint involves a violation of California Pharmacy Law.

If the complaint is within the Boards jurisdiction, the complaint may be referred to an inspector who will contact you for additional information about the complaint, or a consumer services representative may resolve your complaint.

If the complaint is not within Boards jurisdiction, it may be closed with no action taken or referred to another agency. In any case, you will be advised of the Boards action on your complaint.

Many complaints are closed with a verbal or written warning that becomes part of the licensees record. However, a complaint could result in disciplinary action being taken against the licensee. The action may range from reprimand to revocation of the license with loss of the right to practice or operate a pharmacy.

The Board does not represent the person making the complaint individually and does not seek restitution or money damages on behalf of any individual.

How do I file a complaint with the Board?

Complaints may be filed by writing to

Board of Pharmacy

400 R Street, Suite 4070

Sacramento, CA 5814-67

(16) 445-5014

Will I be told of the status and resolution of my complaint?

The Board will notify you in writing when the complaint is resolved unless you inform us that you would prefer not to receive written notification. However, no information may be released if an investigation relating to the complaint is in progress.

How does the Board discipline pharmacists or pharmacies?

The Board may reprimand, cancel, suspend, or revoke the license of a pharmacist or pharmacy that is found to have violated pharmacy or drug laws.

During disciplinary proceedings, licensees may be represented by an attorney and are given an opportunity to demonstrate their compliance with the law. Once the Board has taken action against the licensee, he or she has the right to appeal the action to state courts.

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If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select 2 of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A2 or A3. Discuss the ways in which each per. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select 2 of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A2 or A3. Discuss the ways in which each per paper right on time.

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In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A or A. Discuss the ways in which each perspective (i) might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed and (ii) the methodological approach taken to your selected research area.

The term positivism is commonly supposed to have originated with Comte, and in particular his Cours de philosophie positive (6 vols, 180-4), and is often used by social scientists to refer to a group of approaches to research practise that share a number of characteristics. The most important of these characteristics are,

(i) the view that a material world exists independently of our knowledge of it, and

(ii) that we must rely upon observation of this material world to develop successful theories.

Buy cheap In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select 2 of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A2 or A3. Discuss the ways in which each per term paper

Positivism in philosophy has come to be associated with epistemologies, (theories of knowledge and how it is acquired), which make the experience the foundation of all knowledge, and also with their complementary ontologies, (theories of what exists), which propose a division between objects which are accessible and to observation and objects which are not. This has led to positivism in sociology coming to be associated with the very idea of a social science and the quest to make sociology scientific.

The earliest ideas of positivism were developed from attempts to systematically arrange the successful approaches of natural scientists. A vast amount of today's natural scientists still remain in the belief of positivism and they claim that this is the only proper way to pursue knowledge.

It has been common for logical positivists to also be known as the Vienna Circle, named after the group of philosophers, mathematicians and scientists who founded and developed the ideas relating to positivism in Vienna during the 10s and 10s. Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath and Karl Menger were included within this group and they built on earlier positivist ideas (often related to as classical positivism) particularly associated with the work of Comte.

The positivist perspective might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed as assumptions of the positivist approach are that reality is objective and singular, apart from the researcher and the researcher themselves are independent from that which is being researched. The role of values within a positivist approach is that it is value-free and unbiased, meaning that all angles are covered, while the language of the research is very much formal, with an impersonal voice and is based on a key set of definitions. Positivists have a strong belief in empiricism, the idea that observation and measurement are the core of scientific endeavour and they reject primacy of deductive reasoning. All these might affect the selection of research questions as the assumptions must be met for the approach to be a positivist one. 1

In his overall view, Kolakowski presents positivism as a collection of rules and evaluative criteria for referring to human knowledge, and he regulated four main rules that indicate what accounts as knowledge and what may reasonably be asked (Kolakowski, 166). These rules might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed, and are as follows

1) The rule of phenomenalism,

) The rule of nominalism,

) The rule that refuses to call value judgements and normative statements knowledge, and

4) Beliefs in the essential unity of the scientific method.

The rule of phenomenalism states that "We are entitled to record only that which is actually manifested in experience" (p.11). Kolakowski stresses that "positivists do not object to inquiry into the immediately invisible causes of any observed phenomenon, they object only to any accounting for it in terms of occult entities that are by definition inaccessible to human knowledge" (p.1). This rule presents three difficulties which might affect the selection of research questions. First is the idea that we can know reality only on the basis of experience may be thought to provide a warrant for empiricism and induction, second is that the emphasis on experience would seem to necessitate a neutral observation language for the recording of experience and third, it is difficult to be sure just what is in principle accessible to observation.

The rule of nominalism follows from the first rule and is often merged with it. It states "that we may not assume that any insight formulated in general terms can have any real referents other than individual facts" (p.15). Kolakowski continues stating "according to nominalism, every abstract science is a method of abridging the recording of experience and gives us no extra, independent knowledge in the sense that, via its abstractions, it opens access to empirically inaccessible domains of reality" (p.15). So this mans that the general entities of metaphysics are dismissed as fictions, "for they illegitimately ascribed existence things that have no existence save as names or words "(p.16).

The rule that refuses to call value judgement and normative statements knowledge states that "judgements of value have no empirical content of a sort which renders them accessible to any tests of their "validity" in the light of experience (Giddens, 174, p.).

The final rule, belief in the essential unity of the scientific method, argues that the unity of science stems from a single fundamental law from which all other laws are ultimately derived. As this covers most possibilities, it is essential that the idea of the unity of scientific method be given a specific meaning or otherwise it becomes the kind of notion that one can accept or reject without making any difference either way. All four of these rules would affect the selection of questions if taking a positivist approach.

A positivist methodological approach to the regeneration of Cardiff Bay, my chosen research topic, would very much be a deductive process, which clearly states both the cause and effect of the research. There would be a static design that would visibly state where the different categories would be isolated before the study commenced. The methodological research context is reduced to a limited number of variables to be isolated and these are studied in a non-linear manner with the researcher seeking generalisable findings and clear explanations. It is common for a positivist approach to be seen as striving for principles or generalisations. This would be a typical positivist methodological approach to research.

A positivist methodological approach would be a quantitative approach and would very much depend on quantitative data with the inclusion of a large amount of statistics. There has been a dominance of quantitative methods based on positivist philosophy, but these have been challenged since the early 160's and this has led to a series of debates classed as "paradigm wars". The following model shows a paradigm of positivist research. The person as a machine is used as a metaphor underpinning much of positivist research

Positivist Model

Knowledge as Accumulation of Facts

Correspondencetheory of truth Nomothetic

PERSON

Erklären

AS

Explanatory Reliability +Validity

MACHINE

Rules Generalisations

UnilateralControl Reductionist Non Interactive

This metaphor approach was taken from Pope and Denicolo (001, ch.). Positivist approaches have largely been based on the notion that, if a sufficient number of relevant facts are assembled, the laws governing these facts will reveal themselves.

Interpretative approaches to research can be seen as a group of approaches that are united in a critique of positivism. The philosophical approaches that make up the interpretative approaches reject logical positivism and logical empiricism and the Interpretivist's view is that they reject the view that science is a way to get at real truths which correspond to the world as it is. Interpretativists reject the positivist belief in empiricism and they also reject the Lockean epistemological view of the mind as a blank table in which knowledge is imprinted on the mind by the senses in the form of sense-data. Interpretativists have moved away from this static and passive view of knowledge and have moved more towards an adaptive and active view.

The interpretative perspective might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed as assumptions of the interpretative approaches are very much more qualitative and reality is subjective and multiple as seen by participants in a study and the researcher interacts with that which is being researched. An axiological assumption of an interpretative perspective is very much value-laden and biased. The language of research is informal and decisions relating to the research are evolved as opposed to have a set of definitions, while is a constant personal voice. All of these assumptions might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed.

The individual is the main focus in interpretative approaches and this was highlighted by Kant, a leading philosopher of the Enlightenment, when he proposed that it is people who construct their world and he believed in the fundamental freedom of the individual as well as that individuals are the basis for all ethical ideas and the freedom of individuals is necessary for the development of ethics.

The methodological approach taken to the regeneration of the Cardiff Bay area from a interpretative perspective would very much be a qualitative one, with the emphasis being on qualitative data. The methodological approach would be an inductive process with a mutual and simultaneous shaping of factors. There would be an emerging design as opposed to a static one where the categories would be identified during the research process. The context of the research would be bound, as opposed to a positivist view where the context is free. Within the methodological approach there would be patterns and theories that would be developed for understanding and these approaches would be accurate and reliable through the verification of the research. Using the metaphor approach taken from Pope and Denicolo (001, ch.), would lead to the following as a paradigm for interpretative research

Interpretative Model4

Knowledge as Construction of Reality

Coherentisttheory of truth Idiographic

PERSON

Verstehen

AS

Descriptive Authenticity

SCIENTIST

Utility

Praxis

Bilateral Control Holistic Interactive

The paradigm on the previous page shows an interpretativist model, with the notion of the person as a scientist as the pivotal theme.

Overall there are many perspectives of research with positivist approaches and interpretativist approaches being only two examples, but I feel that they show the differences within the methodological approaches for the different perspectives. Taking different approaches and perspectives towards research can mean that you get different outcomes and results as you approach the research from a different angle. It is crucial that you apply the right approach to research and to obtaining knowledge in order to understand the meaning and interpretations of the results gathered.

Baker A.R.H and Gregory D (184) Explorations in Historical Geography. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.

Bhaskar R (178) A Realist Theory of Science. Brighton Harvester.

Donnelly J (000) Realism and International Relations. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.

Giddens A (176) New Rules of Sociological Methods A positive Critique of Interpretative Sociologies. London Hutchinson.

Hallpike C.R (188) The Principles of Social Evolution. Oxford Clarendon Press.

Keat R and Urry J (175) - Social Theory as Science. London Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Kolakowski L (166) Positivist Philosophy From Hume to the Vienna Circle. Harmondsworth Penguin

May T (001) - Social research issues, methods and process. (rd Edn) Buckingham Open University Press.

Pope M.L and Denicolo P.M (001) - Transformative Education Personal Construct Approaches to Practice and Research. London Whurr.

Vygotsky L.S (178) - Mind in Society. Cambridge Harvard University Press.

Please note that this sample paper on In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select 2 of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A2 or A3. Discuss the ways in which each per is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select 2 of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A2 or A3. Discuss the ways in which each per, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select 2 of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A2 or A3. Discuss the ways in which each per will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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One of the most important parts of any company is the interior organization. Without a solid organization on the interior, there will be no chance for the cooperation to face the general and task environments. In order for the organization to remain solid there must be managers and supervisors who put trust into their employees but at the same time also make sure that the work that they produce is not only satisfactory but also legitimate. Major scrutiny of cooperation's employees usually takes place when there is money being lost due to the situation or when the company as a whole has forecasted or experienced financial challenges.

The article I chose to use deals with Lucent Technologies Inc., and making a managerial decision after being notified about a possible fraud. Lucent Technologies fired a physicist who worked at their Bell Labs division, saying that he had fabricated and falsified numerous research results in the past four years. Several months ago they were informed that they might have a conflict on their hands with the reportings found by Jan Hendrick Schon. The company decided that they would investigate the matters using an outside expert. Schon was a thirty-two year old physicist who had authored more then twenty high profile papers related to a new kind of semiconductors and transistors. The cooperation has been suffering nine-straight losing quarters, and through it all Jan Schon was the only bright spot for the company, which is facing even worse financial problems in the months to come. Lucent will be laying off 50,000 employees, although the Bell Labs division only makes up 1% of Lucent's budget, the firing of Schon was immanent because all of the questions raised about Schon's finding have been proved as fabricated.

This is a perfect example of self examination amongst a cooperation, where the managers are faced with a problem and come through with a definitive decision that will not only save the company a small amount of money, it will also save the company embarrassment and possible lawsuits for falsified information. Through an investigation the company was able to find the problem and resolve it. The committee was made up of four independent physicists, which accused Schon of sixteen instances of scientific misconduct between 18 and 001, including some instances of data fabrication. After his release from Lucent, the company has been doing everything in its power to put space between itself and Schon's findings and publishings. Through the investigation and it's findings Lucent was able to make a bound decision because it new the course of their action would only benefit the company.

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