In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select 2 of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A2 or A3. Discuss the ways in which each per

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In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A or A. Discuss the ways in which each perspective (i) might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed and (ii) the methodological approach taken to your selected research area.

The term positivism is commonly supposed to have originated with Comte, and in particular his Cours de philosophie positive (6 vols, 180-4), and is often used by social scientists to refer to a group of approaches to research practise that share a number of characteristics. The most important of these characteristics are,

(i) the view that a material world exists independently of our knowledge of it, and

(ii) that we must rely upon observation of this material world to develop successful theories.

Buy cheap In consultation with your supervisor select a broad research topic (the obvious choice would be your own research area). Then select 2 of the perspectives covered in Part A. At least one of these must be from A2 or A3. Discuss the ways in which each per term paper

Positivism in philosophy has come to be associated with epistemologies, (theories of knowledge and how it is acquired), which make the experience the foundation of all knowledge, and also with their complementary ontologies, (theories of what exists), which propose a division between objects which are accessible and to observation and objects which are not. This has led to positivism in sociology coming to be associated with the very idea of a social science and the quest to make sociology scientific.

The earliest ideas of positivism were developed from attempts to systematically arrange the successful approaches of natural scientists. A vast amount of today's natural scientists still remain in the belief of positivism and they claim that this is the only proper way to pursue knowledge.

It has been common for logical positivists to also be known as the Vienna Circle, named after the group of philosophers, mathematicians and scientists who founded and developed the ideas relating to positivism in Vienna during the 10s and 10s. Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath and Karl Menger were included within this group and they built on earlier positivist ideas (often related to as classical positivism) particularly associated with the work of Comte.

The positivist perspective might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed as assumptions of the positivist approach are that reality is objective and singular, apart from the researcher and the researcher themselves are independent from that which is being researched. The role of values within a positivist approach is that it is value-free and unbiased, meaning that all angles are covered, while the language of the research is very much formal, with an impersonal voice and is based on a key set of definitions. Positivists have a strong belief in empiricism, the idea that observation and measurement are the core of scientific endeavour and they reject primacy of deductive reasoning. All these might affect the selection of research questions as the assumptions must be met for the approach to be a positivist one. 1

In his overall view, Kolakowski presents positivism as a collection of rules and evaluative criteria for referring to human knowledge, and he regulated four main rules that indicate what accounts as knowledge and what may reasonably be asked (Kolakowski, 166). These rules might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed, and are as follows

1) The rule of phenomenalism,

) The rule of nominalism,

) The rule that refuses to call value judgements and normative statements knowledge, and

4) Beliefs in the essential unity of the scientific method.

The rule of phenomenalism states that "We are entitled to record only that which is actually manifested in experience" (p.11). Kolakowski stresses that "positivists do not object to inquiry into the immediately invisible causes of any observed phenomenon, they object only to any accounting for it in terms of occult entities that are by definition inaccessible to human knowledge" (p.1). This rule presents three difficulties which might affect the selection of research questions. First is the idea that we can know reality only on the basis of experience may be thought to provide a warrant for empiricism and induction, second is that the emphasis on experience would seem to necessitate a neutral observation language for the recording of experience and third, it is difficult to be sure just what is in principle accessible to observation.

The rule of nominalism follows from the first rule and is often merged with it. It states "that we may not assume that any insight formulated in general terms can have any real referents other than individual facts" (p.15). Kolakowski continues stating "according to nominalism, every abstract science is a method of abridging the recording of experience and gives us no extra, independent knowledge in the sense that, via its abstractions, it opens access to empirically inaccessible domains of reality" (p.15). So this mans that the general entities of metaphysics are dismissed as fictions, "for they illegitimately ascribed existence things that have no existence save as names or words "(p.16).

The rule that refuses to call value judgement and normative statements knowledge states that "judgements of value have no empirical content of a sort which renders them accessible to any tests of their "validity" in the light of experience (Giddens, 174, p.).

The final rule, belief in the essential unity of the scientific method, argues that the unity of science stems from a single fundamental law from which all other laws are ultimately derived. As this covers most possibilities, it is essential that the idea of the unity of scientific method be given a specific meaning or otherwise it becomes the kind of notion that one can accept or reject without making any difference either way. All four of these rules would affect the selection of questions if taking a positivist approach.

A positivist methodological approach to the regeneration of Cardiff Bay, my chosen research topic, would very much be a deductive process, which clearly states both the cause and effect of the research. There would be a static design that would visibly state where the different categories would be isolated before the study commenced. The methodological research context is reduced to a limited number of variables to be isolated and these are studied in a non-linear manner with the researcher seeking generalisable findings and clear explanations. It is common for a positivist approach to be seen as striving for principles or generalisations. This would be a typical positivist methodological approach to research.

A positivist methodological approach would be a quantitative approach and would very much depend on quantitative data with the inclusion of a large amount of statistics. There has been a dominance of quantitative methods based on positivist philosophy, but these have been challenged since the early 160's and this has led to a series of debates classed as "paradigm wars". The following model shows a paradigm of positivist research. The person as a machine is used as a metaphor underpinning much of positivist research

Positivist Model

Knowledge as Accumulation of Facts

Correspondencetheory of truth Nomothetic

PERSON

Erklären

AS

Explanatory Reliability +Validity

MACHINE

Rules Generalisations

UnilateralControl Reductionist Non Interactive

This metaphor approach was taken from Pope and Denicolo (001, ch.). Positivist approaches have largely been based on the notion that, if a sufficient number of relevant facts are assembled, the laws governing these facts will reveal themselves.

Interpretative approaches to research can be seen as a group of approaches that are united in a critique of positivism. The philosophical approaches that make up the interpretative approaches reject logical positivism and logical empiricism and the Interpretivist's view is that they reject the view that science is a way to get at real truths which correspond to the world as it is. Interpretativists reject the positivist belief in empiricism and they also reject the Lockean epistemological view of the mind as a blank table in which knowledge is imprinted on the mind by the senses in the form of sense-data. Interpretativists have moved away from this static and passive view of knowledge and have moved more towards an adaptive and active view.

The interpretative perspective might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed as assumptions of the interpretative approaches are very much more qualitative and reality is subjective and multiple as seen by participants in a study and the researcher interacts with that which is being researched. An axiological assumption of an interpretative perspective is very much value-laden and biased. The language of research is informal and decisions relating to the research are evolved as opposed to have a set of definitions, while is a constant personal voice. All of these assumptions might affect the selection of research questions to be addressed.

The individual is the main focus in interpretative approaches and this was highlighted by Kant, a leading philosopher of the Enlightenment, when he proposed that it is people who construct their world and he believed in the fundamental freedom of the individual as well as that individuals are the basis for all ethical ideas and the freedom of individuals is necessary for the development of ethics.

The methodological approach taken to the regeneration of the Cardiff Bay area from a interpretative perspective would very much be a qualitative one, with the emphasis being on qualitative data. The methodological approach would be an inductive process with a mutual and simultaneous shaping of factors. There would be an emerging design as opposed to a static one where the categories would be identified during the research process. The context of the research would be bound, as opposed to a positivist view where the context is free. Within the methodological approach there would be patterns and theories that would be developed for understanding and these approaches would be accurate and reliable through the verification of the research. Using the metaphor approach taken from Pope and Denicolo (001, ch.), would lead to the following as a paradigm for interpretative research

Interpretative Model4

Knowledge as Construction of Reality

Coherentisttheory of truth Idiographic

PERSON

Verstehen

AS

Descriptive Authenticity

SCIENTIST

Utility

Praxis

Bilateral Control Holistic Interactive

The paradigm on the previous page shows an interpretativist model, with the notion of the person as a scientist as the pivotal theme.

Overall there are many perspectives of research with positivist approaches and interpretativist approaches being only two examples, but I feel that they show the differences within the methodological approaches for the different perspectives. Taking different approaches and perspectives towards research can mean that you get different outcomes and results as you approach the research from a different angle. It is crucial that you apply the right approach to research and to obtaining knowledge in order to understand the meaning and interpretations of the results gathered.

Baker A.R.H and Gregory D (184) Explorations in Historical Geography. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.

Bhaskar R (178) A Realist Theory of Science. Brighton Harvester.

Donnelly J (000) Realism and International Relations. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.

Giddens A (176) New Rules of Sociological Methods A positive Critique of Interpretative Sociologies. London Hutchinson.

Hallpike C.R (188) The Principles of Social Evolution. Oxford Clarendon Press.

Keat R and Urry J (175) - Social Theory as Science. London Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Kolakowski L (166) Positivist Philosophy From Hume to the Vienna Circle. Harmondsworth Penguin

May T (001) - Social research issues, methods and process. (rd Edn) Buckingham Open University Press.

Pope M.L and Denicolo P.M (001) - Transformative Education Personal Construct Approaches to Practice and Research. London Whurr.

Vygotsky L.S (178) - Mind in Society. Cambridge Harvard University Press.

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