Admininstrative State

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Introduction

Canada is a country that, historically, was built on people moving from other country to seek a new life. Refugees have played an integral role in making Canada what it is today. In 001, the total number of refugees in Canada was 7,84. As a signatory to the United Nations' Convention to Refugees, Canada is obligated to protect people who are in fear of their lives. The protection of refugees in also incorporated into the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act which in 00 replaced the Immigration Act.

The purpose of this essay is to evaluate the effectiveness of the administrative system in Canada with respect to the protection of refugees under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act. It is divided into three main sections. The first section describes Canada as an administrative state. The second section lays out both the IRPA with respect to refugees and the role of the Immigration and Refugee Board. The third section is a critique of the IRPA and the IRB with respect to their treatment of refugees.

Canada as an Administrative StateCheap custom writing service can write essays on Admininstrative State

Administrative law plays a role in everyone's life from the time of birth, and is interwoven throughout most daily activities. David J. Mullan, in Administrative Law, has described it as the "field of law that has as its concern the statutes (other than the Constitution), principles and rules that govern the operations of the government and its various emanations." Administrative law concerns the implementation and regulation of public programs which are administered under a statute. The government, either federal or provincial depending on the jurisdiction of the issue, can create an agency under a statute to deal specifically with the problem and separately from the court system. The purpose of administrative law is to oversee the fairness of the administrative procedure, the adequacy of the factual basis and the legal authority for administrative action including its constitutionality, the rational exercise of discretion, and the availability of legal remedies to challenge the abuse of power by public bodies and officials. The scope of administrative regulatory power is vast, encompassing economic activities, professions and trade, human rights, public services and social control, including the regulation of immigration and refugee admittance. The agencies which oversee the regulation of the particular public policy get their power and mandate from the statute under which they are created and are confined not only by the jurisdiction of the statue and applicable regulations and guidelines, but also by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the common law rules of procedural fairness which ensure the at both parties to a hearing be heard and that the proceedings are free from bias.

Although the courts are capable of handling disputes concerning public policy, administrative agencies are more advantageous for several reasons. First, it is often more appropriate for administrative agencies to make public policy decisions as they are much more governmental than judicial. Second, agencies have the necessary expertise and experience outside of law which judges may lack. This expertise and experience can make agencies more able to handle the needs of the disadvantaged party. Third, procedures by agencies are cheaper and waste fewer public resources than courts. This is particularly important as the disputes tend to involve small sums of money. Fourth, agencies are less formal and allow for decisions to be made more quickly and efficiently. Canadian courts are already backlogged with cases, and the numerous complaints against the government are better handled by an independent agency comprised of experts who play a more active role in the process. This isn't to say that the courts play no role in administrative law. If a decision by an agency is flawed on the basis of an error of law, fact or both, the party negatively affected by this error may have the opportunity, if the statute allows, to appeal the decision to a court, who, may uphold a the agency's decision, or overturn the decision and, depending on the statute, either send it back for a re-hearing or implement its own decision.

The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act

The statute that handles refugee protection is the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, which, along with its regulations, came into effect on June 8, 00. The IRPA replaced the Immigration Act, which was passed in 176, and had "been amended more than 0 times".

As the name suggests, the Act handles issues regarding immigration to Canada and the granting of refugee protection. The IRPA lays out eight objectives regarding refugees

1. to recognize that the refugee program is in the first instance about saving lives and offering protection to the displaced and persecuted;

. to fulfil Canadas international legal obligations with respect to refugees and affirm Canadas commitment to international efforts to provide assistance to those in need of resettlement;

. to grant, as a fundamental expression of Canadas humanitarian ideals, fair consideration to those who come to Canada claiming persecution;

4. to offer safe haven to persons with a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group, as well as those at risk of torture or cruel and unusual treatment or punishment;

5. to establish fair and efficient procedures that will maintain the integrity of the Canadian refugee protection system, while upholding Canadas respect for the human rights and fundamental freedoms of all human beings;

6. to support the self-sufficiency and the social and economic well-being of refugees by facilitating reunification with their family members in Canada;

7. to protect the health and safety of Canadians and to maintain the security of Canadian society; and

8. to promote international justice and security by denying access to Canadian territory to persons, including refugee claimants, who are security risks or serious criminals.

Pursuant to section () of the IRPA, the Act must be construed and applied in a manner consistent with Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and with any international human rights instruments which Canada has signed, and, in addition, must further the domestic and international interests of Canada. Under this the IRPA, the Governor in Council has the power to create regulations and designate the Minister who is responsible for the administration of the Act, including Part II which deals specifically with refugee protection. For the purposes of the IRPA, the Minister has the power, if permitted by the Governor in Council, to enter into an agreement with the government of a Canadian province, a foreign state, or an international organization.

Refugee Protection

Refugee protection can be conferred on Convention refugees or on persons found to be in need of protection. A Convention refugee is a person who fulfills the criteria of the United Nations' Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, which came into force on April , 154. This is a person who is in fear of persecution in his or her country of nationality or former residence due to race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion. A person in need of protection is a person who if sent back to his or her country of nationality or former residence would be personally subjected to danger of torture or subjected to a risk to life, or to cruel and unusual punishment if the person won't receive protection from that country, the person would face punishment in all parts of that country, the risk is not a lawful sanction, or the risk is not due to inadequate health or medical care.

There are three ways to confer refugee protection on a person

1. under a visa application determining the person to be a Convention;

. determination by the Immigration and Refugee Board of Convention refugee status or person in need of protection status; or

. allowance by the Minister for an application for protection.

A person described under section E or F of the Article 1 of the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees is not eligible for refugee protection. This includes people who are regarded as having the rights and obligations that a national of the country in which they are residing has, and people who have committed crimes against peace or humanity, serious non-political crimes outside the country of refuge before being admitted as a refugee, and who have been guilty of acts contrary to United Nations' purposes and principles.

It is up to the person claiming refugee status to prove that he or she is eligible for refugee protection by truthfully answering all questions asked of him or her. The person must then produce all necessary documents and information required by the Board if the claim is referred. However, there are many reasons preventing a claim from being referred

a) if refugee protection has been conferred on the person, then the claim is ineligible;

b) if the Board has already rejected the claim, a further claim is ineligible;

c) if a country other than Canada has recognized the person as a Convention refugee and the person can go to that country, then the claim is ineligible;

d) if the person came from a country complying with the Refugee Convention and the Convention Against Torture, then the claim is ineligible;

e) if the person has been determined to be a threat to security, then the claim is inadmissible.

Inadmissibility

A person is classified as inadmissible for various reasons as set out in section 4 through 7 of the IRPA, including security reasons, human or international rights violations, serious criminality, criminality, organized criminality, health grounds and financial reasons. When determining whether the first five of these factors are applicable, an officer considers whether there are reasonable grounds to believe not only that they have occurred or are occurring, but also that they may occur. However, if the person can convince the Minister that his or her presence in Canada would not be detrimental to the national interest, then he or she will possibly be declared admissible. Once a person is found inadmissible, he or she cannot appeal the decision if the inadmissibility is based on security, violating human or international rights, serious criminality or organized criminality. Here, serious criminality is with respect to a crime punishable in Canada by a term of imprisonment of at least two years. As the Refugee Appeal Division has not yet come into force, appeals are handled by the Immigration Appeal Division. This division can allow an appeal if the decision was wrong in law, fact or both, if a principle of natural justice has not been observed, or if sufficient humanitarian and compassionate considerations warrant special relief in light of all the circumstances. The Immigration Appeal Division is then responsible for setting aside the original decision and substituting a decision in its place.

The Immigration and Refugee Board

Part IV of the IRPA creates the Immigration and Refugee Board ("IRB"). The IRB is Canadas largest independent administrative tribunal, whose purpose is to make reasoned decisions on immigration and refugee matters in an efficient and fair way and in accordance to the law. . The IRB is split into four divisions, the Refugee Protection Division ("RPD"), the Immigration Division ("ID"), the Refugee Appeal Division ("RAD"), and the Immigration Appeal Division ("IAD"). The RPD decides claims for refugee protection made by persons in Canada. Refugee protection claims made outside Canada are decided by Citizenship and Immigration Canada ("CIC"). The ID is responsible for conducting immigration admissibility hearings for certain categories of people believed to be inadmissible to, or removable from, Canada under the law and conducts detention reviews for those being detained under the IRPA. The IAD hears appeals of sponsorship applications refused by officials of Citizenship and Immigration Canada ("CIC"); appeals from certain removal orders made against permanent residents, refugees and other protected persons, and holders of permanent resident visas; and appeals by permanent residents who have been found outside of Canada not to have fulfilled their residency obligation; and appeals by CIC from decisions of the Immigration Division at admissibility hearings. The RAD has not yet come into force, however, its purpose is to decide appeals from decisions made by the Refugee Protection Division.

The Divisions follow a quasi-tribunal process designed to ensure fair, efficient, and consistent decisions in accordance with Canadian law and Canadas international obligations and humanitarian traditions. Some characteristics of the tribunal are

1. Individuals have the right to be heard and to present their cases fully.

. All testimony is given under oath or by affirmation

. Most cases are heard by one member, although occasionally in the Refugee Protection Division and Immigration Appeal Division, panels of three members will hear cases

4. Hearings concerning refugee claimants are generally held in private, while other hearings are usually open to the public. However, a member of the public may apply to attend a refugee hearing, and upon request, other hearings may be held in private. The guiding principle in all cases is whether there is a serious possibility that the life, liberty or security of a person would be endangered by holding the hearing in public

5. The setting and procedures for hearings are relatively informal and therefore, evidence presented and accepted is not restricted by technical or legal rules of evidence

6. Each division has rules of practice that set out more detailed requirements for procedures, time limits, disclosure of evidence, provision of documents, and other responsibilities of parties and counsel

7. All IRB decisions are based on the evidence provided during the proceedings

8. Members must provide reasons for all final decisions

. Both CIC and individuals appearing before the IRB have the right to apply to the Federal Court of Canada for judicial review of decisions rendered by one of the divisions of the IRB. They must first obtain leave (permission) of the Court.

The Chair person and members of these divisions are appointed by the Governor in Council for seven years subject to reappointment. At least 10% of the members must be members of at least five years standing at the bar of a province or notaries of at least five years standing at the Chambre des notaires du Quebec. They are not allowed to have any criminal or civil proceedings against them or allowed to appear as a witness in any civil proceedings. Each division has sole and exclusive jurisdiction to hear and determine all questions of law and fact, including questions of jurisdiction, and must handle all proceedings as informally and quickly as possible, while still abiding by the rules of natural justice. Matters are generally conducted before a single member, unless the Chairperson decides that a three-member panel is necessary.

Proceeding must be held in public unless the Division decides that it should be held in private due to a threat to life, liberty or security, a risk to fairness of the proceeding or a risk that matters involving public security will be disclosed.

Refugee Protection Division

As previously mentioned, the RPD decides claims for refugee protection made within Canada. In addition, it also makes decisions on applications filed by CIC regarding loss of refugee protection status. Canada's obligations toward the protection of refugees stems from several United Nations Conventions including the 151 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, the 166 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the 184 Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment.

Section 170 of the IRPA sets out the responsibilities of the Refugee Protection Division in the event of a proceeding. This Division

a) may inquire into any matter that it considers relevant to establishing whether a claim is well-founded;

b) must hold a hearing;

c) must notify the person who is the subject of the proceeding and the Minister of the hearing;

d) must provide the Minister, on request, with the documents and information which the claimant has submitted to prove that he or she is eligible to be referred to the Refugee Protection Division;

e) must give the person and the Minister a reasonable opportunity to present evidence, question witnesses and make representations;

f) may, despite paragraph (b), allow a claim for refugee protection without a hearing, if the Minister has not notified the Division, within the period set out in the rules of the Board, of the Ministers intention to intervene;

g) is not bound by any legal or technical rules of evidence;

h) may receive and base a decision on evidence that is adduced in the proceedings and considered credible or trustworthy in the circumstances; and

i) may take notice of any facts that may be judicially noticed, any other generally recognized facts and any information or opinion that is within its specialized knowledge.

When a person has completed a Personal Information Form, the claim can go either through an expedited process or a full hearing process. If the claim appears to be well founded, then it can go through the expedited process, whereby a refugee protection officer interviews the claimant and makes a recommendation regarding the claim. The claim is passed on to a member who decides whether it should b e accepted without a hearing, if the recommendation is favourable. If claimant is not granted refugee protection, a full hearing is held. A full hearing is typically non-adversarial, except when a CIC representative argues against the claim, and follows a general tribunal process. If the claim is accepted by the IRB, the claimant can apply to become a permanent resident; if the claim is not accepted, the claimant still has the opportunity to ask the Federal Court of Canada for leave to apply for judicial review. If leave to appeal is granted, the claim goes back to the RPD for a re-hearing.

Unsuccessful claimants may have other avenues of recourse at CIC including a pre-removal risk assessment.

Case Law

In Chiarelli v. __________, Sopinka J. discussed the constitutionality of the statutory scheme under which a permanent resident could be deported from Canada if he or she is found to have been convicted of an offence which may impose an imprisonment of five years or more. Chiarelli claimed that this provision attacked sections 7 and 1 of the Charter. Chiarelli received landed immigrant status in 175. In 184, he plead guilty to possessing narcotics for the purpose of trafficking, which carries a life imprisonment sentence and was sentenced to 6 months in jail. A deportation order was made against him pursuant to section () of the Immigration Act. This section provides that the adjudicator must make a deportation order against a person who has been convicted of an offence where an imprisonment term of five years or more has been imposed, unless the person is a Convention refugee. (what about persons in need of protection) An appeal hearing was adjourned after it was decided that there were reasonable grounds to believe that Chiarelli would engage in activity that was part of a pattern of organized crime. Sopinka J. found that this section was not a breach of fundamental justice. He stated that in order to determine the scope of fundamental principles as they applied to the case, the Court needed to look at the principles and policies underlying immigration law, the fundamental principle being that non-citizens do not have an unqualified right to enter and leave the country. The Charter itself draws a distinction between citizens and non-citizens. Under section 6(1) a Canadian citizen has the right to enter, remain in, or leave Canada, while section 6(), only gives permanent residents the right to move to, live in and gain a livelihood in any province. Sopinka J. suggested that the condition that non-citizens be deported when convicted of a crime is a legitimate response to a potential threat to public interest. He stated

…there is one element common to all persons who fall within the class of permanent residents described in s.7(1)(d)(ii). They have all deliberately violated an essential condition under which they were permitted to remain in Canada. In such a situation, there is not breach of fundamental justice in giving practical effect to the termination of their right to remain in Canada.

In Suresh v. _________, the claimant, classified as a Convention Refugee, appealed a decision that he be deported. Suresh was recognized as a Convention Refugee in 11 and applied for landed immigrant status. His application was denied based on security grounds and deportation proceedings commenced.

"The Minister [Elinor Caplan, Minister of Citizenship and Immigration] promised supporting regulations over the coming months, which will include a strengthened overseas refugee resettlement program, an expanded family class, new selection criteria to attract more highly skilled and adaptable independent immigrants, and the creation of an 'in-Canada' landing class for temporary workers, foreign students and spouses already established in Canada and wishing to stay."

The legislation intends to make the system work better for refugees by

1. Strengthening Refugee Protection Overseas Resettlement

What we are doing

• Amending the criteria for "ability to establish in Canada" to include social as well as economic factors.

• Pursuing agreements with NGOs to locate, identify, refer and pre-screen refugee applications in areas where refugees are most in need of protection

• Ensuring that people in urgent need of protection are brought to Canada within days

Why are we doing it

• To ensure that the need for protections is the overriding objective in resettlement from abroad

• To focus existing resources on areas where refugees are most in need of protection

. Facilitating Family Reunification of Refugees

. Faster and Fair Refugee Processing Inland

4. Front-end Security security check initiated when a person makes a refugee claim in order to catch criminals and people who present security risks at the start of the process and speed genuine refugees through the system

5. Admissibility Hearing

6. Pre-removal Risk Assessment

The legislation also intends to strengthen enforcement regarding refugees through

Penalties creating a new offence for people who misrepresent themselves

Exclusion from the Refugee Determination System barring access to serious criminals and people who present security risks in order to prevent abuse of the refugee protection system

Eliminating Appeals for serious criminals and people who present security risks in order to ensure that they can be removed without delay. Recourse of judicial review is still available with leave to by the Federal Court

Suspension of a Refugee Claim if he or she has been charged with a crime in order to prevent abuse of the system by people who come to Canada not because they need protection but because they intend to engage in crime(News Release 001)

Both the Act and the Regulations came into effect on June 8, 00. http//www.cic.gc.ca/english/irpa/news.html

Convention for Refugees (UN)A. For the purposes of the present Convention, the term refugee,, shall apply to any person who

(1) Has been considered a refugee under the Arrangements of 1 May 16 and 0 June 18 or under the Conventions of 8 October 1 and 10 February 18, the Protocol of 14 September 1 or the Constitution of the International Refugee Organization;

Decisions of non-eligibility taken by the International Refugee Organization during the period of its activities shall not prevent the status of refugee being accorded to persons who fulfil the conditions of paragraph of this section;

() As a result of events occurring before I January 151 and owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.

In the case of a person who has more than one nationality, the term the country of his nationality shall mean each of the countries of which he is a national, and a person shall not be deemed to be lacking the protection of the country of his nationality if, without any valid reason based on well-founded fear, he has not availed himself of the protection of one of the countries of which he is a national.

Who qualifies as a refugee?

According to the Article 1 (A) of United Nation's Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, which came into force on April , 154, a refugee is a person who, "owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it."

Sections E and F of Article 1 of this Convention state that the Convention does not apply to persons for whom there are serious reasons for believing that they have committed a crime against peace or humanity, a war crime, a serious not-political crime outside the country of refuge, or has been guilty of acts contrary to the purpose and principles of the United Nations

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Dissolute

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The tragedy at Columbine High School is a horrendous tragedy that will be remembered and talked about for years to come. But there are still a couple questions that meander through the depths of our mind. For instance who's to blame? The kids alone, the parents for how they brought the children up, or even actually the students at Columbine? Numerous interviews show that the parents are good, noble people who made a staunch effort in raising their children with beneficial morals and values. Although this horrific act of violence performed by these students is not fully their parent's fault, the parents of these students spend countless nights pondering how they went wrong in raising their child.

We live in a morally corrupt society. It is unfortunate to say that a child or adolescent's value system can be completely altered by a friend who has won his or her soul even in the short period of a single month. This peer eventually fills the void of belonging and acceptance both children and adolescent teens desperately yearn for, and the values implemented by his or her parents are totally relinquished. Because children and adolescents are extremely gullible and will do just about anything to fit in, parents continuously pray that they will choose they will spend their pastime with the right type of crowd.

Unfortunately there are some, such as the students who performed the shootings in Columbine High School, who fall into the wrong crowds of people. Students from Columbine have stated in interviews that the shooters were "loners" who had trouble being accepted by others in their high school. Although this is a challenge that most teens face in their adolescent years, these students who performed the shootings took their animosities to a maleficent extent. Dylan Klebold, 17, and his shooting partner, Eric Harris, 18 have evoked the passion and outrage in one another which allowed them to conspire against their fellow classmates whom they felt has made their high school experience dreadful. Eventually, the boys realized they could not live a life of remorse and feared to live up to the consequences of their wrongdoings; following their shooting spree, they took the lives of their own.

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Discuss the evidence showing that the two types of plant-microbe symbiosis, nitrogen-fixing root nodule development and arbuscular mycorrhiza formation, are controlled by common genetic determinates in the host plant.

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Abstract

Leguminous plant roots form endosymbioses with both bacteria and fungi forming nitrogen-fixing root nodules and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), respectively. The physiological outcomes of both symbioses are quite dissimilar, however, several studies have shown that nodulation defective mutant are often defective in arbuscular mycorrhiza formation, this is indicative of a common genetic overlap in perception of endosymbiosis signals in the host. Analysis has shown several genes to integral to this common system. Study of common phenotypic markers, such as calcium spiking and early nodulation gene expression, has helped to order the action of the common symbiosis genes. The recent cloning of a novel receptor like-kinase has confirmed its role in transduction of both bacterial and fungal symbiotic signals. The evolutionary history of AM-host interactions dates back ~450 MYA, and it is thought the more recent rhizobia-legume interaction may have evolved by recruiting plant factors originally used for AM perception and formation.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is an intracellular plant-fungal symbiosis, leading to a greatly improved uptake of phosphate from the soil, formed between most land plants and the zygomycete fungi belonging in the order of Glomales (Brundrett, 00). Flavonoid exudates from the root hairs of the host plants cause an increase in AM fungal hyphae (Nair et al., 11). The direct contact of these hyphae with root hair epidermis stimulates the formation of an appressoria, a highly branched network of swollen hypea. These fungi grow towards the cortex of the roots upon which they differentiate into specialised branched structures known as arbusculars. The dense network of branches provides the large surface area for ion uptake (for review see Smith and Smith, 17). Fossil records show AM-like interactions in early land plants ~450MYA (Remy, 14), however, intercellular bacterial root nodulation is not detected until much later (Herendeen, 1). Root nodule symbioses are formed between leguminous plants of the Eurosid I clade and a unique diverse group of bacteria called rhizobia. The Rhizobial detection of plant flavonoids induces the release of nodulation factors (NF), symbiotic signalling compounds identified as lipochitin oligosaccharides. The basic backbone of all NFs is B�1,4-linked N-acyl-D-glucosamine four or five units in length, which can be modified at the terminal sugar residue or within the acyl chain (Perret, 000). Species-specific modifications provide rhizobia with a narrow host range e.g. Sinorhizobium Meliloti can nodulate species of Medicago, Melilotus, and Trigonella; Mesorhizobium loti can nodulate species of lotus and Lupinus; Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciac can form nodulate species of pea (Pisum sativum), Vicia, Lens, and Lathyrus; and Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii can nodulate species of clover (Trifolium), however there are exceptions, Rhizobium strain NGR4 was shown to nodulate species of legume and can even nodulate the non-legume Parasponia andersonii (Perret et al., 000; Pueppke and Broughton, 1). Mutational studies into NF production have been shown to alter host specificity and are taken as evidence that plants discriminate between Rhizobia by recognition of their NFs (Perret et al., 000). NF signalling molecules induce several accommodating changes in the host. NF detection causes root hair deformation (swelling and branching), membrane depolarisation, extracellular alkalinisation, followed by curling of the root tip and an entrapment of the bacteria (Wegel et al, 18). Entrapment allows the formation of an infection thread, a host controlled inward growing tubular structure, which descends to the root hair cortex (Albrecht et al., 1). Clusters of cortical cells differentiate to from a primordial nodule, which is subsequently infected by bacteria released from the infection thread. The infected nodule provides the ideal environment to reduce nitrogen into ammonia for uptake by the host. Whilst NFs have been shown to act as signal molecules between the rhizobia and host the equivalent signal molecule between AM and host has not yet been discovered.

At first glance the two intracellular interactions of AM and rhizobia would appear quite different, both inducing different physiological responses in either a promiscuous or species-specific manner. However, studies on model organisms, Lotus japonicus and Medicago truncatula, show that nodulation defective mutants (Nod�) are often coupled with the inability to form mycorrhizal association (Myc�)(Harrison, 17). In 1 of 45 NodW mutants of pea and vetch, diallelic crosses have shown that MycW and NodW cannot be uncoupled, demonstrating that both phenotypes are derived from mutations in the same gene, and suggest a common pathway for the two symbioses (Harrison, 17). This convergence of the two associations has been subject to intense study as it suggests that nodule symbiosis may have arisen in part by the hijacking of genes used for the ancient AM symbiosis.

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Symbiotic signalling, a convergence system

Genetic study of Myc�/Nod� mutants has identified several genes essential to both fungal and bacterial endosymbioses, these are referred to as SYM genes. These genes include MtDMI1, MtDMI, and MtDMI from M. truncatula; PsSym8, PsSym, PsSym1, and PsSym0 from pea (P. sativum); LjSYM, LjSYM, LjSYM4, LjSYM15, LjSYM, and LjSYM0 from L. japonicus; and MaSYM1, MaSYM, MsSYM5 from Melilotus alba (Hirsch et al., 001). Genetic analysis of the pea nodulation mutant Sparkle-R5, which is mutated in PsSYM8, show PsSYM8 to be essential in inducing PsENOD5 and PsENOD1A, both are early nodulin genes required for microbe symbiosis (Albrecht et al., 18). PsSym and PsSym0 have also been shown to be vital for root branching deformation (Walker et al., 000). Study of M. truncatula mutants in three genes MtDMI1, MtDMI, and MtDMI demonstrate their role in inducing early nodulation genes and root hair deformation in response to both AM fungal and NF inoculation (Catoira et al, 000). These studies indicate that SYM genes are involved in perception and transduction of AM fungal factor and rhizobia nodulation factor (NF) signals

Several common genes induced during both symbioses interactions have been identified, expressed in the epidermis, cortex, and pericycle of the root; ENOD, ENOD5, ENOD11, ENOD1, ENOD40, and rip1, are all activated upon treatment of NF onto L. japonicus roots and infection by AM fungi, these genes are termed the early nodulin genes (Albrecht et al., 18; Van Rhijn et al., 17). Furthermore the leghaemoglobin (LB) gene is activated with 4 to 48 hours of incubation with AM or Nod. LB is thought to be an oxygen buffer in the infection zone, however no oxygen restriction is detected in AM so LB may play an additional role (Strake et a., 00). One of the earliest known responses to signalling in symbiosis is the establishment of regular periodic calcium spikes. Addition of NF from R. leguminosarum bv. viciac onto pea root hair induced an increase of calcium within 1- minutes, followed 10 minutes later by periodic spikes in calcium of ~00nM every minute (Ehrhardt et al., 16). Very little is known about the role of calcium spiking in plants but it's detection early in both AM infection and NF inoculation have placed it early in the common signalling leading to endosymbiotic infection, this combined with expression studies on early nodulin genes has helped to develop a pecking order into the action of the SYM genes.

Genetic hierarchy of SYM signalling

Mutations in several SYM genes, LjSYM, LjSYM4 from L. japonicus, MtDMI1, MtDMI from M. truncatula, PsSYM8, PsSYM1 from pea, MsNORK from Medicago sativa, are all Myc�/Nod� and all abolish calcium spiking in presence of NF or AM inoculation, and as a result these genes are placed upstream of this earliest known common response. However, plant lines possessing mutations in these SYM genes still display root swelling in response to NFs (Catoira et al, 000; Stracke et al., 00). Taken at face value, this indicates the common pathway to endosymbiotic infection is independent from pathways leading to NF induced root hair swelling (Fig. 1)

The recent cloning of one of the SYM genes has greatly added our knowledge of the overall pathway of symbiotic signalling. Two institutions simultaneously published papers describing the cloning of two orthologus receptor-like kinase genes essential in the microbial signal pathway, the nodulation receptor kinase (NORK) gene of M. sativa (Endre et al., 00) and the symbiosis receptor-like kinase (SYMRK) gene of L. japonicus (Stacke et al., 00). NORK and SYMRK are highly homologous, both are closely linked to the SHMT marker genes, and both have similar phenotypes, for these reasons NORK and SYMRK where are said to be orthologus. Analysis of SYMRK/NORK genes, in several Myc�/ Nod� mutants, confirmed that mutations in were responsible for the defective phenotypes. Mutations in SYMRK/NORK confer Myc�/ Nod� phenotypes defective in calcium spiking, membrane depolarisation, and extracellular alkalinisation placing then upstream of the earliest detectable response to symbiosis signals. To further clarify the position of the SYMRK gene within the symbiosis-signalling pathway the expression pattern of the symbiosis activated gene LB was observed, unlike wild type, SYMRK mutants didn't induce LB in response to NFs confirming SYMRK role in early signal transduction. The pea line p55, mutated in PsSYM1, has a similar phenotype the NORK/SYMRK mutant, PsSYM1 is highly homologues to NORK/SYMRK at the protein level, and is also linked within 8kb to the SHMT marker genes, these observation led to the conclusion that PsSYM1 and NORK/SYMRK are orthologus genes (Stacke et al., 00). Similar studies have identified other possible NORK/SYMRK orthologus in M. truncatula (MtDM1), M. alba, P. sativum, and Vicia hirsute. Hybridisation of the NORK gene with southern blots of total genomic DNA of several legumes produced bands in thirteen different genera of legume, strongly indicating the conserved presence of NORK homologues in nodulating plants (Endre et al., 00). The protein structure of NORK/SYMRK has all the hallmarks of a receptor-like kinase, possessing a signal peptide, an extracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, and an intracellular protein kinase domain. Three extracellular leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) are found in the extracellular domain. The structure of NORK/SYMRK suggests a role in the detection and translocation of a ligand signal leading to calcium spiking. However, several additional genes have been shown to be required for calcium spiking PsSYM8 from pea (Walker et al., 00), LjSYM4 in L. japonicus, and MtDMI1 in M. truncatula (Wais et al., 000), mutations in all three of these genes confer a Myc�/Nod� phenotype. The orthologus relationship between these genes has not been established. It's possible that these additional SYM genes interact with NORK/SYMRK curtsey of their leucine-rich repeats although this has little evidence.

The MtDMI mutant is interesting in that it's phenotypically identical to the MtDMI1 and MtDMI mutants in all respects except calcium spiking (Catoira et al., 000), MtDMI mutants are able to induce calcium spiking in response to microbial signals. If calcium spiking is a component in the direct signal transduction chain for NF signaling, then the position of DMI would be downstream of calcium spiking, potentially consistent with a gene product involved in transduction of the calcium-spiking signal to downstream targets. Three other mutations have been reported which are phenotypically similar to MtDMI, they are PsSYM, PsSYM0, and LjSym0 (Walker et al., 000). As a result all four of these genes are placed downstream of calcium spiking (fig 1).

Further additions to the signalling pathway can be made studying Myc+/Nod� mutants, LjSYM1, LjSYM5, PsSYM10, these mutants are able to form AM symbiosis but are defective in nodulation, failing to induce calcium spiking and root hair deformation in response to NF (Stougaard, 001). This suggests these mutants are affected upstream of the SYM genes, and may be acting as NF binding proteins. Interestingly these mutations show no morphological deformation response to NFs, yet, as mentioned, mutations in the common SYM genes MtDMI1, MtDMI, MtDMI, LjSYMRK, and LjSym4 all show a root hair swelling response without root hair branching, suggesting that they are still able to partially detect and respond to NFs. This indicates independent pathways for two aspects of NF induced root deformation, root hair branching being downstream of the SYM genes, and root hair swelling being upstream and independent of the SYM genes yet downstream of the hypothetical NF binding proteins (Fig 1). It's quite possible that these NF binding proteins can interact with NORK/SYMRK via the leucine rich region, to induce calcium spiking, and also interact with an a yet undiscovered signalling protein to induce root hair swelling.

Fig 1. The common signalling pathway of leguminous plant genes during endosymbiotic infection. The bacteria nodulation factors (NFs) are shown entering the signal pathway at the extreme left, the mycorrhizal fungi signalling molecule is as yet unknown. Sym genes are shown in blue boxes, genes specific for NF recognition are shown in red boxes. Mutations in NF binding protein genes, LjSYM1, LjSYM5, and PsSYM10, confer a non-nodulating phenotype but retain the ability to form AM, they are defective in both NF induced root hair swelling and calcium spiking, these observations place these gene upstream of the SYM genes. Mutations in any of the SYM genes confer Myc�/Nod� phenotype. The NORK/SMYRK is shown in a dashed box, along with its proposed orthologs in pea and L. japonicus, mutations in these genes are shown to act upstream, along with LjSYM4, MtDMI1, and PsSYM8, of calcium spiking, unlike LjSYM0, MtDMI, PsSym0, and PsSym, which are shown downstream. Root hair branching and root hair swelling are shown on different pathways as several mutants in the SYM genes respond with normal root hair swelling upon NF inoculation yet swelling is absent in NF binding protein mutants. The formation of infection threads cannot proceed without bacterial presence and therefore additional factors must play a role in this, these factors are marked as "?". It was shown that a diffusible AM fungal factor induced MtENOD11 expression, and this induction was independent of the common SYM, it's possible that this factor is the fungal equivalent to the bacterial Nod factors, and that ENOD induction branches away from the SYM cascade after a common fungal factor binding protein perception mechanism (shown as path a ). It's also possible that the AM fungal factor is perceived independently, and serves only to activate expression of the ENOD genes (shown as path b ), SYM8 has been shown to be essential for induction of ENOD1 and ENOD5 in both symbioses suggesting that it's interacting in the pathway leading to ENOD induction as well as the pathway leading to calcium spiking. This figure is adapted from Hirsch et al., 001

It's also possible to obtain Nod� mutants which show wild type root deformation, for both swelling and branching, yet are unable to initiate infection thread or induce early nodulation genes. Transposon tagging of these mutant in L. japonicus identified the gene LjNIN (Schauser et al., 1), which encodes a transcription factor to induce ENOD genes in rhizobial infection. Homologus genes have been identified in pea, psSYM7, and M. truncatula, MtNSP. Interestingly several of the same ENOD genes expressed downstream of NIN (ENOD11, ENOD40, and RIP1) are also expressed in AM infection (Albrecht et al., 18; Van Rhijn et al., 17). Recent experiments using pMtENOD11-gusA reporter gene proved that AM infection induces expression of pMtENOD11-gusA even in Medicago truncatula lines possessing SYM mutations (MtDMI1, MtDMI, MtDMI)(Kostu et al., 0). Furthermore, the it was shown that several membrane separations of the AM fungi and root hair were not sufficient to reduce this pMtENOD11-gusA expression, indicating that the fungi produce a diffusible compound which is responsible for MtENOD11 activation. These observations imply that the pathway leading to MtENOD11 induction, by the diffusible AM fungal factor, is separate from the Nod-dependant induction of MtENOD11 in rhizobial symbiosis and separate from the common SYM cascade and calcium spking (This independent path is shown on fig 1). It's possible that this diffusible fungal factor is the predicted AM signalling molecule, proposed to provide signalling from fungi to plant to activate the common SYM signal cascade in a similar way to NF, this suggests that the SYM cascade and MtENOD11 expression pathways branch from a common AM fungal factor binding protein early in signal transduction ( a in fig 1), it's also possible that the AM fungal factor acts solely on the pathway leading to MtENOD induction, whereas a different fungal factor may be the anticipated AM signalling molecule ( b in fig 1). Further tests are required to distinguish between the two possibilities. However, it has also been shown that induction of PsENOD1 and PsENOD5 in both symbioses is absent in PsSYM8 mutants (see above), this indicates sym8 is common to both ENOD pathways and is added to fig 1.

The discovery of the sym genes has important implications. If one accepts that the mechanisms of AM and rhizobia infection converge, it implies that aspects of these mechanisms should be wide spread throughout plants that undergo either of the two symbioses. In keeping with this idea it was shown that rice were able to perceive the presence of NFs (Reddy et al., 1). A Medicago ENOD1 promoter�GUS complex was introduced into the non-legume rice plant. The addition of S. Meliloti NFs to the transgenic plant resulted in increased levels of GUS reporter gene expression, however the addition of chitooligosaccharide backbone molecules didn't induce ENOD1�GUS expression. Taken at face value these finding suggest a mechanism by which rice can specifically perceive NFs and respond. Whilst it's obvious that a complete perception is not present, it's still an interesting finding and may have significance in attempts to create transgenic legumes capable of benefiting from nodulation.

It's also noted, that infection thread formation cannot occur in the absence of bacteria and therefore additional bacterial factors must come into play downstream of ENOD gene activation, the exact mechanism of this is not understood and is shown as "?" on fig 1.

Gene hijacking in rhizobia evolution.

The convergence of signalling between AM infection and rhizobial nodulation, as well as the fact that several early nodulin (ENOD) genes are expressed in both symbiosis, has led to the suggestion that rhizobia�plant symbiosis may have arisen from the much older AM�plant interaction. Several bacteria exist that posses the ability to reduce nitrogen, and if these bacteria were equipped with the ability to infect a plant root hair it's seems quite possible that this could lead to bacterial endosymbiosis. This of course leads to the question of how ancestral bacteria acquired the infection ability. Study of the nodABC genes in Rhizobiaceae, genes encoding products in the pathway to NF production, suggests they are of external origin (Hirsch et al., 001), their G + C content is below average, and codon usage is different from most chromosomal genes. In addition, the chitin molecule product of the nod genes is quite unlike anything made by conventional bacteria, bacteria do not often posses chitin structures in their cell walls unlike fungi. NodC is an N-acetyl-glucosaminyl transferase that produces a chitin backbone, NodB removes an acetyl group from the terminal residue of the chitin oligomer, and NodA catalyses the transfer of a fatty acid chain onto the free amino group resulting from NodB. The action of NodA is very intriguing as there are few bacterial proteins known possessing such a mode of action, NodA like proteins have only been found in rhizobia and their source is a mystery. However, NodC protein is similar to several fungal chitin synthases, suggesting rhizobia may have acquired these genes from an ancestral fungus. This idea partially explains the genetic overlap of the perception of these genes in legumes.

It's possible that the diffusible factor discovered by Kostu and colleagues (Kostu et al.,00) may represent the fungal signalling factor and further tests may prove or disprove this. The identification of said factors may help improve our understanding of the overall evolution of nodulation.

Where are we now and where are we going?

It's clear that multiple genes are involved in both endosymbiotic interactions, and several of these genes overlap in function. The convergence of signalling mechanisms between the two-endosymbiotic symbioses offer prospect in the production of GM crop. Utilisation of the rich nitrogen provided by rhizobial interaction would greatly reduce the amounts of fertiliser required in agricultural farming. Further study of the SYM genes in model organisms will help advance of understanding, but it's worth noting that model organism do not represent all species and further study on a species by species basis may be needed before agriculture can take advantage of bacterial symbiosis. The cloning of NORK/SYMRK has provided a surge of knowledge and interest into these species, further cloning of SYM genes should be equally as intriguing, and genome sequencing projects of L.japonicus and M.truncatula should facilitate this process. It's apparent that there is a considerable amount of cross talking between pathways an example is the possible presence of sym8 in multiple pathways; this cross talk may cause constructing an overall model difficult. Arguments into the evolution of rhizobia are ongoing and whilst it's possible that these genes originated from fungal origin, it's also possible they stemmed from a bacterial source that has yet to be sequenced.

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Kew Green

Richmond

Surrey

TW AB

Tel +44 (0) 0 840 1171

Tel +44 (0) 0 8 5610

E-mail info@kew.org

Web www.rbgkew.org.uk

Kew Gardens is often referred to as the Royal Botanic Gardens.

Three hundred acres containing collections of over 40,000 varieties of plants. Also seven glasshouses and two art galleries, Japanese and rock garden etc...

Between March and November one-hour tours start daily at 11.00am and .00pm. A more limited service is run during the winter (normally at pm only but call +44 (0)181 56 during office hours to check, or E-mail tours@kew.org

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PAKISTAN AND THE UN

Like all developing countries, Pakistan requires cash and resources to develop. The UN, the World Bank and the IMF, has had a major role in the structuring of Pakistan's economy.

0% of the World Banks lending to Pakistan since 185 has been used for agriculture and for irrigation. The largest portion of this aid has been given to the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan, which provides loans for agricultural activities. The next important allocation has been for research and extension. The World Bank has also provided loans for dairy farming and development of edible oil crops.

The World Bank has been involved in developing Pakistan's irrigation system. In 160, it helped to negotiate the Indus Basin Water Treaty between India and Pakistan, providing for the Tarbela Dam. In 175, the World Bank drew up a plan to improve the irrigation system in collaboration with the Pakistan government. It has been proposed that water charges be levied according to the amount of water used by the farmer. Presently, water supply and charges are independent of each other, so there is no incentive to use water efficiently.

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A number of studies have been made to assess energy reserves, to identify problems and to upgrade the power transmission and distribution system. The World Bank is also assisting Pakistan through a search for better energy policies.

The World Bank provides loans to lay gas pipelines from Sui to consumption centers.

The Pakistan Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation (PICIC) has received the bulk of loans. The World Bank has also lent directly to the industry, e.g., three fertilizer plants, a refinery engineering loan and credit for the Small Scale Sector have been funded.

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I believe the monster is good and not evil because he is trying to make friends through out the story until he gets shot. When the monster is brought to life, Clerval bursts through the door and says" Frankenstein what have you created?"

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She screams but the monster says No! No! Friend! Not hurt anyone. I am their friend. Friend of everyone. I give you…

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Cell Phone Tracking Raises Privacy Issues

In the article "Cell Phone Tracking Raises Privacy Issues", it talks about how people are looking into making cell phone companies that provide services able to know where their customers are at all the time. In my opinion there are three ways to look at this situation the company's view, the customer's view and an outsiders view. I'm going to try to see it form all sides.

The company's view that is the hardest to see. Tracking the customer you would be able to know the calls are made from and be able to tell if their phone is roaming in their home area, and if it is then they can correct it without having the customer getting upset because they were charged wrongly. Other than that, I really can't see any reason to be tracking the customer's location.

Next, the customer's view, my view, I believe that I find it quite annoying to know that people are tracking my every move. Onstar already uses that tracking to help people with roadside assistance. That is an example of tracking for good reasons. What if the companies take advantage of it and use the information for other uses? I don't like that either. I find it ok if I was being tracked if I made a call that I needed help, and it was an emergency. Track the call not my every move!!! Otherwise, leave me alone, and met me live my life!!

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Finally the outsider's view, it benefits the customer by being available for emergencies and helping them get help if they need it. Also, it would help to keep track of where calls are made form to keep bills fair without the customers getting upset and having to make changes on their bills.

In conclusion, I personally don't like the idea of being tracked; it's stupid and an invasion of my privacy! Other than that there really isn't a real reason not to have my phone tracked, unless it is abused and information found is used to do bad and not benefit the customer.

Please note that this sample paper on Cell Phone Privacy is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Cell Phone Privacy, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on Cell Phone Privacy will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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IROQUOIS (The Iroquois Confederacy is comprised of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora)

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IROQUOIS BIOGRAPHIES

Bonvillain, Nancy. Hiawatha Founder of the Iroquois Confederacy. New York Chelsea House Publishers; 1. 118 pages. (North American Indians of Achievement). (secondary).

This is a biography of Hiawatha, the Iroquois leader who united the independent nations of the Iroquois into one confederacy. The laws and rituals associated with the confederacy are discussed, as is its power from the 17th through the 0th centuries. Includes a chronology, a reading list, and an index.

Fradin, Dennis Brindell. Hiawatha Messenger of Peace. New York, NY Margaret K. McElderry Books; 1. 5 pages. (elementary) .

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This is a well-written account of the life of Hiawatha, the Iroquois leader who founded the national government that united the five Iroquois tribes in the 15th century. The early events of Hiawathas childhood are recreated based on accounts of traditional Iroquois life, and frequently the book incorporates more than one interpretation of events in his life. Regarding Iroquois influences on the U.S. Constitution, the author states, ...many historians claim that all Americans live according to some of Hiawathas and the Peacemakers ideas. Illustrated with a map and many photographs, including paintings by contemporary Iroquois artists. Includes a bibliography and an index.

Josephy, Alvin M. Jr. The Patriot Chiefs A Chronicle of American Indian Resistance. New York, NY Penguin Books; 161. 64 pages. (secondary).

This book describes the life stories of nine outstanding leaders in the Indian resistance movement, from different times, places, and nations. The author explains that While this is not a history of American Indians...the subjects were selected to provide variety in Indian backgrounds and culture, geographic areas and historic periods, and particular large-scale problems that led to crises and conflicts. Arranged chronologically, they help to convey in ordered sense a narrative outline of much Indian history. Although it was published 0 years ago, this book remains one of the best written and most readable books of its kind. Included are biographies of Hiawatha, King Philip, Pope, Pontiac, Tecumseh, Osceola, Black Hawk, Crazy Horse, and Chief Joseph.

McClard, Megan; Ypsilantis, George Riccio, Frank, illus. Hiawatha. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Silver Burdett Press; 18. 1 pages. (Alvin Josephy, Gen. Ed. Alvin Josephys Biography Series on American Indians). (upper elementary/secondary).

This biography of Hiawatha describes how this Iroquois leader was instrumental in establishing peace and union among the Six Nations of the Iroquois, through formation of the Iroquois League. The importance of wampum as a record of law and history in association with the League is also discussed. The book describes the early part of Hiawathas life based on oral traditions, since there are no written historical records. Includes black-and-white drawings.

IROQUOIS TRADITIONAL STORIES

Bierhorst, John; Parker, Robert Andrew, illus. The Woman Who Fell From the Sky the Iroquois Story of Creation. New York, NY William Morrow and Company, Inc.; 1. 8 pages. (lower elementary).

Sources are cited for this version of the Iroquois story of the sky woman and the creation of the world. This story explaining why there are two minds in the universe--one hard, and one that is gentle--may be complicated for young readers, for whom it is intended. Illustrated with beautiful full-page, color paintings. e/star/Iroquois/Northeast/legend.

Bierhorst, John ed.; Zimmer, Dirk, illus. The Naked Bear, Folktales of the Iroquois. New York, NY William Morrow & Co.; 187. 115 pages. (lower and upper elementary).

This collection contains sixteen Iroquois folktales retold in simple language suitable for elementary students. According to the introduction, the happy endings and the sense of evil punished and virtue rewarded in these stories, collected 1880--180, reflect 00 years of European influence. Accompanying notes explain cultural information that may be unfamiliar to readers. The illustrations tend toward cartoon-like caricatures, detracting from the editors apparent concern for accuracy. Includes a bibliography.

IROQUOIS NON-FICTION

Chadwick, Edward Marion. The People of the Longhouse. Toronto, Canada The Church of England Publishing Co., 187. 166 pages. (secondary).

This book, describing the history of the Iroquois from the creation of the League of Nations to the time of the books printing (187), opens with the following statement Unlike most Indian Nations, whose history is generally little more than vague tradition, interesting to few but ethnologists and other scientists, the People of the Longhouse, Iroquois, or Six Nations...possess a reliable history of respectable antiquity.... Following this, the author explains that the book neither pretends to be exhaustive nor attempts to deal with the wider subjects of Indian origin, life, and customs generally...no especial claim to originality is made by the writer, for much of this work is founded upon the authorities mentioned.... Like other books of this period, the information it contains, some useful in an historical context, is tainted with the Eurocentric attitudes and stereotypes of the period. For example, when describing the traditional longhouse dwellings of the Iroquois, the author states As the people advanced in civilization their primitive long houses became gradually superseded by separate dwellings, more in accordance with the manner of their white neighbours.... The book covers subjects from history and territory, to information on chiefs, laws, marriage, customs, dress, dances, clans and totems, and detailed lists of personal names. The book also contains a reprint of a paper titled, Remarks on the Indian Character. Includes black-and-white illustrations and photographs, a pronunciation guide, and an index.

Cutler, Ebbitt; Johnson, Bruce, illus. I Once Knew an Indian Woman. Boston, MA Tundra Books; 185. 7 pages. (secondary).

This book describes a Canadian womans recollections of an Iroquois woman, Madame Dey, whom she saw on summer vacations in the late 10s-10s. Madame Dey emerges as an exceptional person, who sticks to her values, rising above the world of pettiness that surrounds her.

Doherty, Craig; Doherty, Katherine M. The Iroquois. New York, NY Franklin Watts; 11. 64 pages. (upper elementary).

The focus of this Iroquois ethnography is on traditional life, the book covers such topics as subsistence, religion, daily life, and the Iroquois League. Because of the use of the past tense, it is not always clear whether the activities described are still being practiced today. Little more than one page is devoted to contemporary life. Unfortunately, the book uses reproductions of old prints that are not informative and tend to reinforce stereotypes. The relationship between the text and the illustrations is not clear.

Graymont, Barbara. The Iroquois. New York, NY Chelsea House; 188. 18 pages. (Frank W. Porter, III, Gen. Ed. Indians of North America). (upper elementary/secondary).

This description of the Iroquois who traditionally lived in what is now upstate New York discusses the origin and formation of the League of the Iroquois, traditional life, the effects of Euroamerican contact and economy on the Iroquois, and the devastating series of wars with other tribes on their western and southern borders. The book also describes the impact of the American Revolution on the Iroquois, the reservation period and the accompanying social, political, and military decline of the Confederacy, and the development of the longhouse religion founded by prophet Handsome Lake. Effects of the removal policy and continued loss of land through federal and state pressures are documented, as are recent attempts of the modern Iroquois to make the transition to a new economic system while continuing to fight for their land and rights. Illustrated with archival photographs, maps, and a color photographic essay on Iroquois false-face and husk face masks. It is important to note that many American Indians find depicting masks and using them for classroom activities offensive. Includes a glossary and an index.

Hill, Bruce; Gillen, Ian; MacNaughton, Glenda. Six Nations Reserve. Markham, Ontario Fitzhenry & Whiteside; 187. 64 pages. (Inside Communities Series). (elementary) .

This short, well-organized presentation about the Six Nations Iroquois Reserve in Ontario, Canada is told as a first-person narrative by Carla, a fictitious Onondaga girl. The book describes contemporary life on the reserve and provides some historical information on the Iroquois. Thoughtful discussion questions for students are included. Illustrated with profuse black-and-white photographs of the reserve that give a feeling for contemporary life.

Hofsinde, Robert (Gray-Wolf ); Hofsinde, Robert, illus. Indian Costumes. New York, NY William Morrow and Company; 168. 4 pages. (upper elementary).

This simple reference on the traditional dress of various American Indian tribes makes distinctions between clothing used for everyday purposes, warfare, and ceremonial occasions. White the author uses the word costume, more appropriate would be the terms clothing, dress, and regalia. Stereotypical Indian dress is a popular costume for Halloween and western movies. Includes detailed black-and-white illustrations.

Hofsinde, Robert; Hofsinde, Robert, illus. Indian Warriors and their Weapons. New York, NY William Morrow & Co.; 165. 6 pages. (upper elementary).

The weapons, fighting methods, clothing, and charms worn for battle of seven representative tribes---the Ojibwa, Iroquois, Sioux, Blackfeet, Apache, Navajo, and Crow---are the focus of this book. There is very little discussion of the causes for warfare, or the historical context in which wars were fought. Illustrated with black-and white-ink drawings of traditional dress and weapons.

Job, Kenneth; Whitman, Shirley, illus. Indians in New York State. King of Prussia, PA In Education, Inc.; 18. 47 pages. (elementary) ?.

Short chapters describe traditional Iroquois lifeways and history up to the Revolutionary War. The Iroquois are compared and contrasted with their Algonquian neighbors. Each chapter is followed by suggested activities and multiple choice questions on the reading. The text contains spelling errors (i.e. chief Powhatan is misspelled two different ways) and generalizations, such as an explanation of the term Indian file. The writing style is problematic, including frequent use of italicized words and exclamation marks.

Wheeler, M. J.; Houston, James, illus. First Came the Indians. New York Atheneum; 18. 6 pages. (lower elementary).

This book contains simplistic and short descriptions of the Creek, Iroquois, Ojibwa, Sioux, Makah, and Hopi. In the two-page section titled Indians Now, the author emphasizes that American Indians live much like other Americans in rural and urban areas, are employed in a variety of occupations, and hold on to many of their traditions. Includes black-and-red illustrations.

Wolfson, Evelyn. The Iroquois People of the Northeast. Brookfield, CT Millbrook Press; 1. 64 pages. (upper elementary).

This historical overview of the Iroquois describes traditional life, the French and Indian Wars, the establishment of reservations, and the Iroquois Confederacy today. The book opens with Facts About the Iroquois, a summary of Iroquois life written in the past tense that gives the false impression that there are no Iroquois today. While the historical perspective documents events and changes to Iroquois culture, it does not capture the dynamic nature of Iroquois culture change and adaptation are not presented in positive ways. The section on the Confederacy today discusses politics, but not the contemporary everyday life of the Iroquois. Illustrated with many fine color reprints, drawings, photographs, and maps. Includes a section on important dates in Iroquois history, a glossary, bibliography, and index.

IROQUOIS FICTION

Baker, Betty; Lobel, Arnold, illus. Little Runner of the Longhouse. New York, NY Harper C Child books; 18. 6 pages. (I Can Read). (lower elementary) ?.

This is the story of Little Runner, who wishes to participate in a False Face ceremony to earn freshly gathered maple syrup. This story has no basis in Iroquois culture. Little Runners reference to the False Faces as funny masks, and his capricious response towards them, leads one to question the accuracy of the cultural attitudes presented in the story. The illustrations are stereotypical; for instance, adults have hooked noses.

Banks, Lynne Reid. The Indian in the Cupboard. Garden City, NY Cornerstone Books; 188. 1 pages. (upper elementary) ?.

A nine year-old English boy, Omri, receives a plastic American Indian toy, a cupboard, and a key for his birthday, and finds himself in an adventure when the toy comes to life. The book objectifies American Indians and is replete with stereotypical attitudes. Little Bear, the Indian, speaks Hollywood Indian, for example, 'You touch, I kill, the Indian growled ferociously. Although this book is popular with children and educators, its offensive treatment of American Indians makes for inappropriate reading.

Banks, Lynn Reid; Geldart, William, illus. Return of the Indian. Garden City, NY Scholastic Inc.; 188. 1 pages. (upper elementary) ?.

In this sequel to The Indian in the Cupboard, Omri finds Little Bear (the plastic toy Indian) close to death and in need of help. Like the original book, it abounds with stereotypes, for example 'Astonishing these primitives, said Matron. 'Perfect control over the body. None over the emotions. Includes black-and-white illustrations.

Banks, Lynne Reid; Philpot, Graham, illus. The Secret of the Indian. London, England William Collins Sons & Co., Ltd.; 18. 144 pages. (upper elementary) ?.

In this story, Omri engages in adventures with his plastic toys---Little Bull, son of an Iroquois chief, and Boone, a Texas cowboy---who come to life in contemporary England. Omri and his friend Patrick, who temporarily goes back in time to the wild West, find it increasingly difficult to keep their family from learning their secret. As with all the books in this series, Omri is presented as the powerful controller who determines the fate of the Indian characters, who must look to Omri for all their needs. Stereotypical language is pervasive in the book, such as when Little Bull says, Omri wake! Day come! Much need do!.

Girion, Barbara. Indian Summer. New York, NY Scholastic Inc.; 10. 18 pages. (secondary).

Teenaged Joni and her family accompany her pediatrician father to the Woodland Reservation for a month during the summer in this contemporary story. On the reservation she meets Sarah Birdsong, an Iroquois girl. Although both girls are skeptical of one another and their differing cultures, they slowly learn to understand and appreciate their differences during their summer together.

Katz, Welwyn Wilton. False Face. New York, NY Dell; 10 Mar. 176 pages. (upper elementary).

The action in this fictional story set in contemporary London, Ontario, centers around the discovery of two ancient Iroquois False Face masks. The masks, which retain their power to inflict or divert ill, cause conflict between the thirteen-year-old heroine, Lanie, and her mother. All characters in the story are non-Native, with the exception of Lanies friend, Tom, who is half-Iroquois. Only Tom recognizes the dangers of the masks and eventually returns them to the bog where they were found. The story is well-written, fast-paced, and exciting, and introduces the issues of repatriation and Indian and non-Indian prejudice. However, the use of the masks as the basis for an exciting adventure story demeans their sacred character.

IROQUOIS MOHAWK BIOGRAPHY

Bolton, Jonathan, and Wilson, Claire. Joseph Brant Mohawk Chief. New York, NY Chelsea House; 1. 10 pages. (Liz Sonnenborn, Series Ed. North American Indians of Achievement) (secondary)

This is an informative biography of Joseph Brant (174--1807), the Mohawk leader who represented his people to their British allies. Brant sought to protect Iroquois lands from being taken over by Euroamericans. He was a leader in an alliance of midwestern and southern tribes to battle the spread of non-Indian settlers, and successfully negotiated with the British to secure land for the Iroquois in Canada. No cultural information is included in the biography. An introductory essay on American Indian leadership outlines the differing characteristics necessary for successful leadership. Illustrated with reproductions of black-and-white prints and maps. Includes suggestions for further reading, a chronology of the life of Joseph Brant, and an index.

IROQUOIS MOHAWK NON-FICTION

Bonvillain, Nancy. The Mohawk. New York, NY Chelsea House; 1. 11 pages. (Frank W. Porter, III, Gen. Ed. Indians of North America). (upper elementary/secondary).

This comprehensive guide examines the Mohawks history from earliest origins to the present. A Northeast longhouse culture, the Mohawk originally lived in the area that is present-day eastern New York State. The book includes information on Early, Middle, and Late Woodland cultures, Iroquoian history, settlement areas, traditional activities, contact with Europeans and Americans in the 18th and 1th centuries, and the Handsome Lake religion. A final section discusses the lives of contemporary Iroquois. Includes a bibliography, Mohawk-at-a-Glance, a glossary, and index. Illustrated with archival and contemporary black-and-white photographs, maps, and illustrations.

Duvall, Jill. The Mohawk. Chicago, IL Childrens Press; 11. 45 pages. (A New True Book). (lower elementary).

This short, easy-to-read description of the Mohawk covers social and political history including the importance and use of wampum and the Great Law of Peace and how it influenced the U.S. Constitution. Illustrated with maps, paintings, archival and contemporary color and black-and-white photographs. Includes a glossary and an index.

IROQUOIS MOHAWK FICTION

Peck, Robert Newton. Fawn. Boston Little, Brown and Company; 175. 14 pages. (secondary).

Sixteen-year-old Fawn, the son of a French Jesuit and grandson of a Mohawk warrior, witnesses the battle between the French and the English at Fort Ticonderoga in 1758. While the Mohawk have aligned themselves with the English and the Huron with the French, Fawn does not choose sides. He believes only the American Indians have a right to the land for which the Europeans are fighting over. Fawn saves the life of young colonist Ben[edict] Arnold from Connecticut, who in turn advises him on the movement of the English, so that Fawn can help his father who has chosen to fight along with the French. This is a story of a young boy who reaches his manhood and tells his father to return to France, while he joins Ben in Connecticut to learn to farm. The dialogue in this book is unrealistic and trite.

Peck, Robert Newton. Jo Silver. Englewood, FL Pineapple Press; 185. 1 pages. (secondary).

Sixteen year-old Kenny Matson hikes alone into the Adirondack wilderness in upstate New York in the hopes of finding Jo Silver Fox, a Mohawk writer-turned-hermit, whose work he admires. He finds the author, now a blind elderly woman living alone in the mountains, and spends several days with her. Through a mystical connection, Jo feels that Kenny is, in spirit, her daughter who died in childhood, as well as the link connecting Jos soul to that of Kennys prep school teacher Dr. Gray. 'Yesterday...she said, 'I called you my spiritual daughter...because no sooner had you arrived...I knew you were my lanyard...linking me to a past from which I ran. But more, connecting me to a third person. Someone whose face is only a blur. A face with no name. The book presents little accurate information on American Indians. At one point, Jo tells Kenny, 'In case you havent heard, we Mohawks are obsolete. Dinosaurs of yesterday. And the improbable mystical link between the characters is another example of stereotyping American Indians as close to nature and spiritual. Not recommended as a source of information on American Indians.

IROQUOIS SENECA TRADITIONAL STORIES

Powell, Mary, ed.; Reade, Deborah, illus. Wolf Tales Native American Childrens Stories. Santa Fe, NM Ancient City Press; 1. 8 pages. (elementary).

These short stories from the Cherokee, Omaha, Seneca, Pawnee, Tlingit, Sioux, and Tsimshian describe the special attributes and power of the wolf and its interaction with other animals, including humans. Following each story is information, adapted for young children, on the historical and contemporary location of the tribe. Sources are provided for each of the stories. Illustrated with black-and-white and monotone drawings.

IROQUOIS SENECA NON-FICTION

Duvall, Jill. The Seneca. Chicago, IL Childrens Press; 11. 45 pages. (A New True Book). (lower elementary).

This is a short, easy-to-read description of the traditional life and political history of the Seneca. A few pages are devoted to Ely S. Parker, the first sachem of the Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse), who later was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs by President Ulysses S. Grant. Illustrated with black-and-white archival and contemporary photographs. Includes a glossary and index.

IROQUOIS SENECA FICTION

Porter, Donald Clayton. The White Indian Series. Reprint of 180 ed. Boston, MA Bantam; 184. (secondary) ?.

This series of seven novels relates the story of Renno, the son of white settlers, who is adopted into an Iroquois tribe when his settlement is raided in the late 17th century. The books describe Renno as extraordinary, unique, and possessing godlike qualities, and repeatedly emphasize, in both subtle and blatant fashion, how his white blood makes him somehow superior to the American Indians with whom he lives. When Rennos mother encourages him to marry in War Chief, book three of the series, Renno wanted to protest that he knew virtually every eligible young woman in the entire Seneca nation and wasnt interested in any. When he does decide to wed, it is to a white woman. Although somewhat disturbed by Rennos American Indian upbringing, the bride-to-bes mother reassures herself that the questionable Renno is acceptable as a husband for her daughter, because he was reared an Indian, to be sure, but its plain he was the son of colonists.... The books use stereotypical references such as savage, primitive, hot-blooded, and Indian phlegm when describing Indian characteristics.

http//www.kstrom.net/isk/stars/starmenu.html

It was white men (discovering it at the end of the 1th century) who named it Medicine Wheel, terminology they applied to anything Indian observed or told them they didnt understand. White men of the Sheridan Chamber of Commerce -- particularly as tourism in the Bighorn National Forest got underway as economically significant to the town -- made a huge mystery of it, and ignored the fact that there are at least 40 other wheels on the high plains (mostly in Canada), as well as some sites far removed, both spatially and culturally.

One of these (Cahokia in Ohio) has been called An American Woodhenge because of similar astronomical sightings from a large circle of postholes, all that remains. The -henge and the interest of astronomers in solar, lunar and star sighting relationships, comes from a 160s analysis of the famous Stonehenge in England. In the late 160s British astronomer G.S. Hawkins showed with astronomical computations that the ancient circle of huge megaliths was a solar-lunar and stellar analog computer made by pre-historic Celtic tribespeople. This gave Eddy, then an astronomer (whose speciality was the sun) at the High Altitude Observatory at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, near Boulder, Colorado, the idea to make an exact survey of the Bighorn wheel, and observations and computations following the methods used by Hawkins. To see if the rocks, the mountain, sun, stars and the spatial directions could tell us something people have long forgotten. He found that they could, that nature itself speaks to those who know how to interpret, via astronomy, geometry, and mathematics. Generally, the methods used -- at least until the excitement this discovery occasioned -- are not known to anthros.

was supplied by the U.S. Forest Service Bighorn district office is taken (probably in the late 170s) looking due east (there is a red east marker at the edge of the windswept bare shoulders stepped drop-off). Snow is still visible on the distant ridges and forest below, but has been blown clear of the shoulder here. The wheel is about 0 feet in diameter, though its not a perfect circle. The central cairn (solar backsight) is about 1 feet in diameter. It was about 4 feet tall when I visited it in 178. The sunrise sighting cairn is at the lower right from this photo angle, separated from the wheels rim by a 1 foot spoke extension. It is U-shaped, longer than wide, and open at the end toward the circles center. You can stand or sit in this cairn -- I slept in it, lying stretched out in my sleeping bag, then I sat up -- to sight the solstice rising sun along the spoke and through an old dead branch I placed in the central cairn. Behind you will be a steep precipice, down to the Bighorn River valley, across which there are visible snowy summits of high peaks that bound Yellowstone National Park, 100 miles away. On the front lower left of the wheel is the starsight cairn. Across the rim, on its eastern side, are the cairns used as backsights for sighting the dawn-rising stars Aldebaran, Rigel, and Sirius, as calculated and discovered by astronomer John Eddy in 17-4. At the right is a cairn that lines up with dawn-rising of the southern bright star Fomalhaut, as discovered by Jack A. Robinson, in 180.

The ancient geology of Medicine Mountain has formed a very special place, perhaps unique in all the world. Regardless of when the Wheel was built up there, there is every likelihood it has always been sacred to Native peoples, because its special character, an acient sacredness long predating the existence of humankind and even animals, can be felt. Thats probably why the Wheel was built there, actually.

Tourist desecrations might have been worse, probably would have been, except for years of determined protective efforts by the Medicine Wheel Alliance, an organization that got its start through the Northern Cheyenne Cultural Commission. In 188, the Forest Service made a developmental proposal for the wheel, which was protested by people from Northern Cheyenne, Crow, Arapaho, Sioux, and Blackfeet tribes, who later formed the protective organization.

Anthros seem mainly to have asked the Crow about the wheel (their reservation in Montana is nearest, and there is a small, damaged wheel near Fort Smith on their present rez land), Northern Cheyenne may know more about it. The Wheel figures in an unsuccessful treaty-based land claim filed by the Northern Cheyenne in 1, just inside (its shoulder precipice forming part of) the boundary of land including the Bighorns and Powder River country they maintained the U.S. took illegally).

According to Northern Cheyenne Bill Tall Bull in 188, Ive had to hide myself up there (from the Forest Service) while conducting ceremonial prayers on the mountain. Rangers have been known to kick Indians off the mountain. Many times I had to hide from them and the tourists while there for prayer.How sad, when I head this, just 10 years after I was up there all alone, it wasnt famous then

After my night alone up there seeing the solstice sun rise right on the ancient altars lineup I went to the home of a traditional woman elder friend at the nearby Northern Cheyenne rez. No one there could tell me much about it, then, except that It was up there that the instructions were given for the first Sun Dance. The Wheel itself was said to be those instructions.

Please note that this sample paper on IROQUOIS (The Iroquois Confederacy is comprised of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora) is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on IROQUOIS (The Iroquois Confederacy is comprised of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora), we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on IROQUOIS (The Iroquois Confederacy is comprised of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora) will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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