Anorexia Nervosa

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Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia Nervosa is a mental illness in which a person has an intense fear of gaining weight and a distorted perception of their weight and body shape. Recent studies suggest that people with anorexia respond to dieting differently from other people. While most people fell uncomfortable when their calories are restricted, people prone to anorexia are comfortable with it. People with anorexia believe themselves to be fat even when their weight is so low that their health is in danger. There are two types of anorexia nervosa restricting and binge-eating/purging. People with restricting type severely limit their food intake and or exercise excessively. Individuals with binge-eating/ purging type engage in binge eating self induced vomiting or the abuse of laxatives, diuretics (water pills), or enemas. Anorexia is not only a problem with weight and food, it is a way to use those problems emotional problems. Researchers believe that a combination hormonal, social, and psychological reasons may be responsible.

Individuals with shaky self images and a family history of depression, weight problems and substance abuse seem to be at a higher risk for the disorder. About 5% of patients with anorexia nervosa are women. Most of them developed the disorder in late adolescence or early childhood. Despite the large number of women who report some sort of eating disturbance, only a small number actually meet the diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa. One percent of teenage girls in the U.S. develops anorexia and up to 10% of those may die as a result. Although many cases of anorexia nervosa in males go unreported, it does appear in boys. 10% of eating disorder sufferers are male. There are more factors that are common in males with eating disorders than females. Eating disorders in males are linked to athletic performance, particularly for sports that have weight classes boxing, wrestling, etc. Men who have eating disorders were once overweight, and now have an intense fear of gaining weight. 0 percent to 50 percent of anorectics develop binging and purging behaviors.

There is no known reason, of why people actually get anorexia. The people who have the disease think that they would be happier and lead better lives if they were thin. People are usually good students and they are involved in school activities. They blame themselves for bad grades. People who develop anorexia usually share certain personality traits, like perfectionism, low-self esteem, a need for control, etc.

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As the disorder develops, they may experience depression, irritability, sleep problems, lack of sexual interest, and they may withdraw from friends and family. Most researchers believe that one cause of anorexia nervosa is societies emphasis on thinness and body shape as a major part of being attractive. In fact, most people who develop the disease are female because there is more pressure on women to be thin. These images cause many to develop unrealistic expectations for their own bodies. Social pressures interact with a variety of other factors to develop anorexia. Physical, sexual, and emotional abuse are some experiences that people with the disorder have experienced in their lives. Other psychological problems that can lead to anorexia anxiety, depression, and compulsive behavior. A person's family may also encourage personality traits such as perfectionism, emotional reserve, desire to conform, avoid conflict, and a need for control.

Some behaviors that are associated with anorexia are refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age and height, intense fear of gaining weight, even if they are severally underweight, and disturbance in the way one's body weight or shape is experienced. Some other characteristics are and intense drive for thinness, an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, and a disturbance in body image.

WARNING SIGNS OF ANOREXIA

· Deliberate self starvation.

· Fear of gaining weight

· Refusal to eat

· Denial of hunger

· Constant exercising

· Greater amounts of hair on body or face

· Sensitivity to cold

· Absent or irregular periods (in women)

· Fainting spells

· Periods of hyperactivity

· Shortness of breath

· Dry, brittle skin

· Constipation

· Cooking for others

Anorexia nervosa has a wide variety of medical complications that effect every system of the body and can be life threatening. Severe anorexia leads to chronic malnourishment which takes toll throughout the body, particularly in the thyroid, heart, digestive and reproductive systems. Undernourishment usually causes females with anorexia nervosa to stop menstruating (periodic vaginal discharge in humans and other mammals, consisting in blood and cells shed from the lining of the uterus, or the endometrium), -in fact, this symptom is so typical in anorexia nervosa that it is often used to diagnose the disease. In men, a complication is a decreased sexual drive. Shrunken organs, low metabolism, and an irregular heartbeat are some other medical complications. People with anorexia often suffer from fatigue, and muscle weakness, have trouble staying warm and have dry, yellow skin. Changes in the function of kidneys and gastrointestinal systems are common. People with the disorder frequently develop osteoporosis, a loss of bone mass, that makes bones fragile and prone to fracture. This bone loss may be at least partially irreversible, and delayed bone development can also lead to stunted growth. Many changes in the function of the heart can occur, such as slow heartbeat, low blood pressure, and heart palpitations. These changes can cause a person to become prone to dizziness and fainting , and abnormal heart rhythms sometimes result in sudden death. Scientists estimate that between 5 percent and 0 percent of people with anorexia nervosa die of medical complications related to the illness.

Because people with anorexia believe that there is nothing wrong with them, treatment is difficult. Patients in early stages of anorexia my be successfully treated without having to be admitted into the hospital. For successful treatment, the patient must want to change. People with more serious anorexia nervosa need care in the hospital. Treatment involves more than changing the persons eating habits. Anorexic patients often need counseling for a year or more so they can work on changing the feelings that cause their eating problem. Some patients are helped by medicine to help them feel less depressed. These are provided by a doctor and are accompanied by counseling. As a mental illness, anorexia nervosa is treated through psychotherapy. However, the medical complications of the disorder are often so serious that stabilizing the patients' physical condition must be the first step of treatment. Some patients are admitted to the hospital for this treatment. Weight gain, though often difficult to achieve, is the primary goal for restoring a patients physical health. Physicians may prescribe increases of food consumption and dietary supplements, along with instructions for the patient not to exercise. Most severe cases, especially if a patient resists instructions to eat, nutrients and fluids may be administered intravenously. The female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone may be used to help restore bone mass and strength. Antidepressants and other medications are sometimes used to treat depression and anxiety. With treatment many of the medical complications of anorexia nervosa can be reversed.

Various forms of psychotherapy are used to help the people with anorexia nervosa recognize and change their distorted view and attitudes about food, weight, and body image. Counseling helps people understand and resist societal pressures to attain a certain body shape. Treatment also addresses any other factors, such as abuse, trauma in a close relationship, or low-self esteem that have contributed to the development of the disorder. Or those diagnosed with anorexia nervosa, 4 percent recover, 0 percent improve somewhat, and more than 0 percent suffer from a chronic eating disorder.

I have a friend who suffered from anorexia. She felt that she would be popular and her crush would finally notice her. She told me that she didn't feel like she had control over it, it was more like it was controlling her. She never told her parents and they never found out, because her friends stopped before it could kill her. She never reached her goal with her weight, during the time she felt like turning against the people who teased her about her weight to help her lose the weight. That didn't help her, she turned to drugs, alcohol, and smoking to cure the problems with her friends. Her friends threatened to leave her if she "didn't get a grip on life". She had to make a tough decision, but she made it. It was very hard for her, she felt lonely and friendless. She turned to suicide, saying that she wasn't worth it, she hated herself. She tried everything from pain killers to rat poison. She ended up telling a friend how depressed that she was and that she was going to end her life that night. She called the police and told them, if it wasn't for them she wouldn't have been able to tell me this story today. She ended up going back with an eating disorder when she passed out in school. She was sent to the hospital, and she was in intensive care for days. She had called a friend to tell him what had happened, she said that he was completely distraught. That was when she realized that she was hurting her friends and family. She had hurt the people was had believed in her. To this day sometimes she wishes that she went along with the friend who promised her "Eternal perfection" with drugs and alcohol. Today she has a mission, to help everyone who has an eating disorder and or is depressed.

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UNDP Human Development Report 2003

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Goals set by the United Nations Millennium Summit to lift millions of people out of poverty by 015 will be possible, only if poor countries pursue wide-ranging reforms and rich countries keep their pledges to deliver financing for development, according to the 00 United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) Human Development Report (HDR) 00.

The Millennium Development Goals endorsed by all members of the United Nations set out eight specific cross-cutting goals essential in the fight against poverty. The first seven goals set out what poor countries must do to meet the goals and the eighth goal is aimed at rich countries and their commitment in responding with improved trade terms and increased aid.

The Report challenges rich countries to set concrete targets and deadlines and take action by

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· Dismantling unfair trade subsidies and tariffs to create a level playing field.

· Writing off unsustainable debt

· Stepping up aid-flows

· Creating better access to technological progress.

In the Foreword to this year's report, the UNDP Administrator, Mr Mark Malloch Brown said, " The Human Development Report 00 documents an unprecedented backslide in the human development indices in some of the world's poorest nations. More than one billion people still live in extreme poverty and for many, living standards are getting steadily worse."

However, the report notes "If global progress continues at the same pace as in the 10s, only the Millennium Development Goals of halving income poverty and halving the proportion of people without access to safe water stand a realistic chance of being met, thanks mainly to China and India, which together represent one-third of the world's population of six billion."

The Millennium Development Compact argues investments in health and education are required for high and priority countries to break out of their poverty traps, which will in turn contribute to economic growth.

This is important since "education is not just a source of knowledge, education also promotes better hygiene and increases the use of health services."

"Higher education levels are associated with better family planning, playing a major roles in falling fertility rates."

This notion of synergies among social investments is central to reducing hunger, malnutrition, disease and illiteracy and to advancing human capabilities, said the report.

As quoted in 'The Independent (London)", Mr Malloch Brown said," It is about jobs and a decent meal for all the family, about education for the kids and protecting the environment which such a large number of the world's poor make a living from."

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Should Illegal immigrants be allowed to come to Australia illegally?

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Dear Editor,

I strongly believe that having immigrants come to Australia illegally, without using the proper channels, is utterly wrong. Why should Australia be left with such a burden?

Being a migrant myself, I have nothing against LEGAL immigrants. However, I do have a problem with people from other countries thinking they can come and live here in Australia, illegally. What makes them and me so different? I came to Australia through the proper channels; I paid money to live here, I even had to wait a few months to be accepted. So why cant they?

Many people in Australia are suspicious of illegal immigrants, (who are also known as the 'boat people') because of what is happening around the world with terrorism. How do Australians know these illegal migrants are not terrorists or suicide bombers? It is only natural to have people on their feet and alert over what is happening around them?

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What benefit do these illegal immigrants give to Australian people and Australian society? If they cannot even afford to come here via the proper channels, who knows what 'benefit' they will provide us. They could end up on the dole and rely on taxpayers' money to support them.

I really do not think other countries are attacked with as many illegal immigrants as Australia has, and I am pleased to hear that actions are being taken to deal with them.

We could as Australians say, aren't we suppose to be the friendly, decent and democratic people that the Prime Minister and the rest of us are so proud of?

However, I would be more than happy to accept immigrants coming to Australia legally. Despite this, I believe illegal immigrants are a waste of taxpayers' money, time, energy and resources!

Opinionated

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On love

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Love…. a warm liking or affection; sexual passion, says the oxford English dictionary. Why hasn't it added things like, additional expectations of bringing the girl flowers or say sweet-talking with the guy? Or not having any relationship with any other guy. Oh right, it comes with the package! Why didn't I think of that!

I know the newly "fallen in-love's" would pounce at me for having said what I just said and might say what if "I feel like giving my girl flowers or what if I love sweet-talking with my guy"…try it for a while … 6months, maybe years and then see what I mean by "package deal".

Anyway I am not here to fight the pros and cons of love, my dear love, I am merely here to write my thoughts aloud and see what happens….

So love huh? Ask anyone (especially the college goers) and they'd tell ya some more verbs, like love is not a verb enough! So ask them and u see they'll tell ya the stereotypical- caring, sharing, giving, forgiving, compromising blah blah blah…. so basically it's about being a Christ ur self right? Or a social worker? Well the sole difference here maybe that it's only to that one-person huh? Cheap custom writing service can write essays on on love

Agreed its all rosy at first maybe it is rosy for years to come but hello! Don't we know roses fade out, wither and die? Well does the rosy feeling fade like a rose too ? U tell me, I don't know.

So the social worker thing, my friends… what's the dig deal? U have to be caring, sharing, giving, loving, forgiving and all and all to this one particular person right? (I know it depends on circumstances and stuff so, nah plz don't pounce on moi) why cant we be all that towards everybody? Social service is a costly affair, that's why? Or its great difficulty to love all humans? (Obviously, what about that crazy b#@#@ who snatched my friends and about that mean one who dumped me??)

Now I am not taking a moral lesson but just reasoning to the pattern of our "love lives". So tell me, just why can't we love the entire mankind, after all we all are one species, aren't we? Don't we seek to and want to live in peace…what am I asking for? Nothing, just a little probing into Ur souls as to what love really is? Is it a call for security from that one person who should be able to fulfill the package deal? Or is it compassion? Should it be universal or duh! Should I just shut my mouth?

I don't know, u tell me.

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A Critical Study of Social Equality

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A Critical Study of Social Equality

Different viewpoints toward equality have continually been expressed throughout history. Most recent of which, include the modern political ideas of communism and the democratic/capitalist systems of government in the west. A search to employ equality by various means has proven to be an extremely difficult task. Consequently, equality seems to be a central issue in utopian literature, as philosophers have continually sought to find the best structure for society, one in which all can be equal or at the least be provided with the equality of opportunity. However, as this essay further explores equality, one realizes that within the confines of a capitalist economy, total equality is unfeasible. Nonetheless, total equality may not be what we should strive for, but rather the equality of opportunity.

One such example of a philosopher in search of equality is evident in Condorcet's "Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind" in which, he argues that social equality will arise only if education becomes available to all citizens. He furthers this argument by stating a sense superiority is felt among those who are educated, and they in turn govern, suppress, and take advantage of those who are not. Therefore, if all citizens have equal opportunity to education "they will attain a real equality since differences in enlightenment or talent can no longer raise a barrier between men…" (Sargent, 17). Interestingly enough, Condorcet's view that education should be provided to all citizens has largely become a reality in the western world. And although western society has made fine steps toward equality, it still seems like total equality looms miles away. Even to this day race, gender, and class play a significant role in the subordination and under representation of peoples such as ethnic minority groups, women, and the poor.

Similar ideas on equality have been expressed through various other literary works, most popular of which Thomas More's Utopia addressed equality by eliminating the class system "In Utopia there are no classes, if by class we mean the hereditary privileges or disabilities which separated the citizens in Plato's Republic and caused them to be referred to one or another of four distinct groups of society… [in Utopia] The social distinctions that there are to be found, are entirely based on merit." (Donner, )

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Furthermore, Eugene Kamenka in his book "Utopias" argues that "private property acquires social power" (Kamenka,6). Based on that fact alone, (that some citizens will own more private property than others), it suggests that the society would have various social positions or "classes" whereupon the different citizens will have varying respects of social recognition based on property (land, money, riches, etc.). In this case, access to education would no longer matter in the grand view of achieving total social equality, as it would then have already become impossible due to the struggle between rich and poor. Therefore, Condorcet's view on social equality through education would be seemingly futile, unless private property was banished in co-existence with his theory. As a result, we see that in a capitalist society, which relies heavily on private property to drive the economy, totally social equality is implausible.

Nonetheless, Condorcet's idea of providing equal education opportunities to all citizens raises an interesting topic. If, as previously explored, social equality is truly impossible to reach within the confines of a capitalist society (which relies on private property), Condorcet is reasonable in exploring the equality of opportunity. Equality of opportunity would seemingly be the next morally righteous step assuming total social equality is not possible. This idea of providing the equality of opportunity is further examined by Andres Lavine in a chapter entitled "What Do Egalitarians Want?" Lavine discusses the "equality of what" debate in which he seemingly sees two approaches first well-being egalitarianism, which refers to total equality. And secondly, resource egalitarianism which Lavine explains is the idea that all should receive equal distribution of the means for obtaining what matters "intrinsically" (basic and essential). In essence, what such egalitarians want is equal opportunity within society. The idea of resource egalitarianism, since total equality as been determined unlikely in a capitalist society, seems, in Lavine's eyes, to be best means of structure for a government within society. Not only does it rid of "free riding" and "idleness" problems, but it encourages the individual to set out in life and take advantage of the opportunities provided to him, such as publicly funded education. In turn, the equality of opportunity then allows for social mobility, and even though there will be distinct classes of rich and poor, the poor are provided with the opportunity to breach their rank of social class and climb the ladder of social mobility.

Furthermore, he continues his examination of equality by stating, "The "equality of what?" debate is about theoretical ideals. In practice, an equal distribution of any of the various distribuands proposed in the literature would be impossible to implement precisely" (Lavine).Instead, distribution could only be approximated, and such an effort to distribute welfare resources or any other likely distribuand would in the end be unbalanced, and corrupted as we saw thought the example of communism. In effect, egalitarians are committed to bringing the bottom classes up through political means, but Lavine would argue that such an attempt must be done by the "bottom" because of the political problems that arise, namely idleness, free-riding, and the possibility of unequal distribution.

Nonetheless, one may argue that the inequalities that are posed by race and gender issues will still linger within society, even if resource egalitarianism is implemented. To a large extent this may be true; however, have we seen a society that has implemented the resource egalitarianism fully? Certainly some would argue that the in the United States, so commonly referred to as the "land of opportunity and freedom" has provided equal opportunity. Yet, we must not over look such practical examples as private health insurance and the issue of private education, which in turn allow for a higher level of opportunity to those that are wealthy, further setting apart the chance of the poor climbing the ranks of social mobility. Such critics of resource egalitarianism would point out that in many capitalist societies the popular trend seems to be the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. However, although starting at the bottom of a capitalist society may take generations to reach some sort of upward social mobility nonetheless the opportunity is there providing health completion, discouraging "free riding". A successful and truly people oriented government would then find ways to encourage those at the bottom of the social ranks to seize the opportunities presented to them such as public education, while providing governmental structure that allows for a pure form of resource egalitarianism excluding two tier institution (public and private),

Agreeably, such inequalities posed by race and gender have been extremely difficult issues to deal with in the past, and still today pose an extreme threat to equality even after the civil right movement in the United States. However, since equality has been excluded to the founding race and gender in many cases of nations (Ancient Sparta and the United States to name one old and one new) , in order to achieve equality of all races and gender, those that have been underrepresented and discriminated against in the past, namely African-Americans, Native Americans, and Women, in the United States are just in receiving legislation such as affirmative action to push them into the realm of social equality, and, in turn place them in positions to receive equal opportunity for their racial or gender groups in the future. While at the same time, once a reasonable amount of such previously discriminated people had climbed the social ladder, affirmative action would have to then be eradicated, otherwise the legislation would be discriminative against the founders.

Bibliography

Ames, Russell. Citizen Thomas More and His Utopia

Russell and Russell. New York. 16

Baker, Keith. Condorcet From Natural Philosophy to Social Mathematics

University of Chicago Press. U.S.A. 175

Bellamy, Edward. Equality

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 188

Donner, H.W. Introduction to Utopia

The Folcroft Press, Inc. Folcroft, Pa. 145

Kamenka, Eugene. Utopias

Oxford University Press. Auckland, New York. 187

Kesten, Seymore. Utopian Episodes

Syracuse University Press. New York. 1

Leslie, Marina. Renaissance Utopias and the Problem of History

Cornell University Press. Ithaca, New York . 18

Manuel, Frank and Fritzie. Utopian Thought in the Western World

The Belknap Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 17

Mitchell, John. Human Nature

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Metuchen, N.J. 17

Negley, Glenn. The Quest for Utopia

Henry Schuman Inc, New York. 15

Paker, Martin. Utopia and Organization

Blackwell Publishing. Malden, Ma. 00

Sargent, Lyman Tower. The Utopian Reader

New York University Press. New York. 1

Surtz, Edward. The Praise of Pleasure

Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 157

White, Frederic. Famous Utopias of the Renaissance

Hendricks House, Inc. New York. 155.

Wright, J. "Placing Women in Society" University of Florida

Feb. 00. http//www.cise.ufl.edu/~jtwright/women.htm .

Taylor, Barbara. "Basic Human Needs". 11 Oct. 00. The Institute for Management Excellence. Feb. 00 http//www.itstime.com/jun7a.htm#power.

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Outline Lyotards theory of the postmodern

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Modernity is that period roughly associated with twentieth century Western ideas about art (although traces of it in emergent forms can be found in the nineteenth century as well), in which science established facts, political theory established the social state, secularism overcame religious opinion, and the notion of shame was denied or explained away with various social conventions. It was an era dominated by the thought of Freud and Marx. Its tendency was toward the legitimacy of the social welfare state.

Steven Connor (18) says that the concept of postmodernism cannot be said to have crystallized until about the mid-170s . . . Modernity had received some strong criticism, and it was becoming more and more viable to assert that the postmodern had come to stay. Postmodernism is characterized by the emergence of the postindustrial information economy, replacing the previous classes of aristocracy, middle class, and working class with the new paradigm information elite, middle class, and underclass. The phrase also implies a nation-state challenged by new world views feminism, multiculturalism, environmentalism, etc; with old scientific certainties called into question. Postmodernism rejects the modernist ideals of rationality and individualism, it is in favor of being anti-capitalist and contemptuous of traditional morality. The most recent feature of postmodernism is the rise of political correctness. Postmodernism is anti-worldview. It denies the existence of any universal truth or standards. Postmodern theorists move away from the notions of the Enlightenment which believed that the world and the self were somehow whole and graspable through the exercise of reason. Postmodernity is seen as involving an end of the dominance of an overarching belief in scientific rationality, the replacement of theories of representation and truth, and increased emphasis on the importance of the unconscious, on free-floating signs and images, and a plurality of viewpoints.

Jean-Francois Lyotards The Postmodern Condition A Report on Knowledge (17) is often said to represent the beginning of postmodern thought. Lyotard, perhaps the most influential writer in postmodern thought, defines postmodernism as incredulity towards metanarratives. A metanarrative is a worldview a network of basic assumptions of which every aspect of our experience and knowledge is interpreted. Lyotard argues that all aspects of modern societies rely on grand narratives'. Totality, and stability, and order, Lyotard argues, are maintained in modern societies through the means of grand narratives which are stories a culture tells itself about its practices and beliefs, a sort of meta-theory that searches to explain the belief system that exists. These metanarratives represent totalizing explanations of things like Christianity or Marxism dominant modes of thought. Modernity and Christianity debated as to which view was true; postmodernism attacks both Christianity and modernity because they claim to be true.

The "grand narrative," upon which science and other knowledge-producing activities are based, "has lost its credibility" according to Lyotard. He believes that the post modern world is characterised by a spreading cynicism about metanarratives (or general belief systems), including world religions, political ideologies, and even science and reason. We have become disillusioned and no longer expect the world to become a better place. Metanarratives have partly been discredited because, in an era of global media in which we learn more and more about other peoples beliefs and lifestyles, it becomes less and less possible to regard one lifestyle or one belief system as the true one.

Lyotard is of the opinion that the modern project of 'Great Narratives' is not unfinished; it has been destroyed. (1)There is no longer a highest form of theory, a culminating point of culture and reflection. There is no Ideality that gives meaning to our lives.

Connor states that "Lyotard argues modern science is characterised by its refusal or suppression of forms of legitimation which rely on narrative." (18 4) Lyotard argues that, with the collapse of the modern metanarrative of reality, science has begun to sustain itself more and more by the ability of its theories to generate more and more work. However, he also argues that "science inevitably returns to narrative, since in the end it is by narratives alone that scientific work can be given authority and purpose. However, Lyotard also believes that scientists are not out to find truth, but rather to build up power.

Language is the way we express our experiences of the world, therefore to understand the world, as best we can, we must look to what is said about reality. But subjectivism is all we can have since the best we can do is experience and interpret what others have experienced and interpreted reality to be, and so the spiral continues downward. Thus, for the postmodernists, any assertion of absolute knowledge is seriously questioned and ultimately rejected. Therefore history is seen as a series of metaphors rather than an account of events as they actually happened. After all, the one recording the events was writing and recording the events as they saw them. Someone else may have seen it differently had they been there. Lyotard says that the important question for postmodern societies is who decides what knowledge is, and who knows what needs to be decided.

The whole Enlightenment project, argued Lyotard, has come to an end, how can we still meaningfully speak of human progress and the rational control of the life world after what happened in Auschwitz and Stalins gulags. Lyotard makes central to postmodernity, a shift from a 'productive to a 'reproductive social order, in which simulations and models-and more generally, signs-increasingly constitute the world, so that any distinction between the appearance and the 'real is lost. As Kearney states in his book The Continental Reader, "Lyotard suggests that these (grand narratives) must give way to less ambitious 'petits recits', little narratives that resist closure and totality, stressing the singularity of every 'event'." (16 46)

Lyotard argues that all aspects of modern societies, including science as the primary form of knowledge, depend on these grand narratives. Postmodernism then is the critique of grand narratives, the awareness that such narratives serve to mask the contradictions and instabilities that are inherent in any social organization or practice. In other words, every attempt to create order always demands the creation of an equal amount of disorder, but a grand narrative masks the constructedness of these categories by explaining that disorder really is chaotic and bad, and that order really is rational and good. Postmodernism, in rejecting grand narratives, favors mini-narratives, stories that explain small practices, local events, rather than large-scale universal or global concepts. Postmodern mini-narratives are always situational, provisional, contingent, and temporary, making no claim to universality, truth, reason, or stability. As Lyotard states in Kearney's book (16 46) " a postmodern artist or writer is in the position of a philosopher..the work he produces are not in principle governed by preestablished rules and they cannot be judged according to a determining judgement."

In fact, one of the consequences of postmodernism seems to be the rise of religious fundamentalism, as a form of resistance to the questioning of the grand narratives of religious truth. This is perhaps most obvious in Muslim fundamentalism in the Middle East, which ban postmodern books - like Salman Rushdies The Satanic Verses - because they deconstruct such grand narratives.

To be sure modernitys assertion that logic and science alone are certain methods for acquiring truth, and that man is a passive subject of knowledge was wrong. We cannot, in light of the developments in the philosophy of logic, science, and ethics conclude any longer that these are unquestionable, uniform disciplines for us to simply fall in line with. This extreme should be rejected. But postmodernism, with its rejection of modernitys claims, pushes another extreme. All the while denying being a worldview, it is in effect a worldview.

Postmodernism is marked by a scepticism that rejects modernism as an ideal defining twentieth-century culture as we have known it. Postmodernism rejects the idea of any universal truth, whether it is history or logic. In challenging tradition, however, postmodernism refuses to define a new meaning or impose an alternative order in its place. Postmodernism sprang from postindustrial society, which is passing rapidly deep into the Information Age. Postmodernism celebrates the death of modernism, which it regards as not only arrogant in its claim to universality but also responsible for the evils of contemporary civilization. Truth is rejected as neither possible nor desirable on the grounds that it can be used by its creators for their own power and ends. Postmodernism makes no attempt to provide new answers to replace the old ideas it destroys. Postmodernism does not try to make the world a better place. It is socially and politically ambivalent at best, self-contradictory at worst. In the end, Postmodernism remains essentially a form of cultural activism motivated by intellectual theory. As Lyotard himself states in Kearney's book (16 46) "the postmodern would be that which, in the modern, puts forward the unpresentable in presentation itself."

Bibliography

Essay Title Outline Lyotard's theory on the meaning of the postmodern.

Connor, Steven (18) Postmodernist Culture an introduction to theories of the contemporary. Oxford Basil Blackwell. (pp -4)

Kearney, Richard and Mara Rainwater (16) The Continental Philosophy Reader. London; New York Routledge. (Chapter 7 Jean-Francis Lyotard)

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Macbeth vs. Ozzy Osborne

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Select one of the song lyrics and analyze it using Macbeth as your frame of reference. Make sure that you identify specific connections between the lyric (including musical influences) and the play and that you make a clear reference to thematic ideas.

"Facing Hell" by Ozzy Osborne does a fantastic job in conveying the fact that a person can lose their soul if they fall to the temptations of the world. This train of thought can be applied to the play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare. Shakespeare paints a picture for the audience about a hero, Macbeth, and the events that lead to his brief rise in power and the events that lead to his fall.

Custom Essays on Macbeth vs. Ozzy Osborne

Macbeth was a highly respected general and a loyal follower to his king. This all changed when he had a meeting with fate. In the play the three witches symbolize the fates of men. They shed light on what is to happen in the future and what steps would need to be taken in order to fulfill what was going to happen. For his loyal service Macbeth had been appointed "thane of Cowdor" a position that has been left vacant by a traitor to the King. With this newly acquired title Macbeth sheds light on his inner desires with his soliloquy describing his thoughts of becoming king.

In "Facing Hell" one of the verses definitely describes the whole situation that Macbeth creates. "But then I'm blinded with temptation, and to every mortal sin, is it God that sits there waiting, or will the darkness suck me in?" This is a strong verse, combined with loud rifts from the electric guitar and the resonance of the bass. This verse does the play justice because Macbeth's flaw is that he wanted to attain power too much. In the beginning Macbeth is only worried about the trouble that he would get into with the authorities if he were found out. He doesn't seem to give much thought that he has cast down his soul to hell. He just leaves everything up to chance. "If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me, without stir" (Macbeth 1.. 144-147 It is almost as if he thinks that he will just be given the throne and that he will not have to do anything to take over. This is not the case because in later scenes he commits murder of the King and of his guards. It is here that there seems to be a shift in the way of Macbeth's thinking, it is now that he realizes that he has committed murder and that he has cast his spirit down without hope. He put earthly wants in front of preserving a lifestyle of serving his King with honor and obedience, and loyalty.

Macbeth ascends to the top of the chain of command with the murder of the King but this level of power is short lived when different people suspect him of being the perpetrator behind the killing of the king. Macbeth spends the rest of the play with nightmares of what he has done and trying to keep this secret silenced.

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