Active australia

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Homework Assignment-Core Better Health for Individuals

1. Outline the factors which impact on individual behaviour.

The factors that impact on individual behaviour are exercise, diet, stress management, health assessments, relationships, drug use, physical fitness, weight control, disease susceptibility, environmental sensitivity and sexuality.

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. Which aspects of health can individuals exert some control over? Describe how this can be done.

Individuals can exert some control over their dietary intake, by making choices about the amount and type of food they eat. They also can have control over what type of exercise and physical activity they do each day.

· Predisposing factors- Those that you bring to the situation, for example your current level of fitness and the value you place on fitness.

· Enabling factors- Those that make it easier or harder to follow behaviour patterns or to change, for example the availability of fitness facilities.

· Reinforcing factors- Those people who support you in making or sticking to a decision to change, for example peer and family.

. Is there something that you do which you know you should change to improve your health? How did you learn that behaviour? List the major difficulties you face in changing your behaviour.

As an elite athlete at state level my health is well balanced. I eat the correct foods and do the required amount of exercise, therefore at the moment there is nothing that needs to be changed. Although last year our coach wanted to us to be more

aware of what we ate, to make sure all players were eating healthy. How this was done is shown in question 4. A difficulty I faced was that at the time I was boarding with four other people and we had to compromise on what food we bought and ate for dinner.

4. Develop a step-by-step plan you could undertake to change that behaviour.

· I wrote out what I ate each day for days including a weekend day. I had to include everything from the brand of products to quantity used.

· I returned the list to my coach and he circled the food in which is unhealthy and should only be eaten in moderations or cut out that food from my diet.

· I evaluated the results and made progress by choosing supplements.

5. How can the action areas of the Ottawa Charter help us to achieve better personal health?

It allows us to have the choice of eating healthy, working in a healthy environment and environmental activities providing people with skills to improve their health.

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Friends helping Friends

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FRIENDS HELPING FRIENDS

Being a good counselor and helping other people with their problems is not as easy as it might seem. You have to obtain and use special techniques to interact with such people. There are many "Pitfalls on the path to helping others," just as the book "Friends Helping Friends," written by Carol Painter explains in the first chapter. There are certain skills that you, your self must master before helping others and in the second chapter Painter mentions one of the biggest skill to master, Attending skill.

The book so far is very interesting because it tells you how to make your self a better person by getting rid of the pitfalls in thinking of as being your own best friend, selfishness, responsibility, feelings, accepting "faces" people wear, seeing "problems" as problems...etc. Even thought this book is a manual for peer counselors, I believe that it is also a guide on how to make your self a better person. The first chapter tells you how some times selfishness is even a good thing, how you should take responsibility for the actions you choose, recognizing peoples true self and looking past there so called "Masks," and you should never give advice, because a good counselor is there to listen to a person not give them advice. You help a person narrow down their choices of possible solutions to a problem they have and they choose the right one...not you!

The second chapter is about attending skills. Attending skills do not come important only in counseling some one but also in every day conversations with your friends. Just like the book says " A listener plays an important part in a conversation." If your not paying attention to some one, no one will come to you for help or even a simple conversation. When you are using your attending skills during a conversation your are nodding your head, repeating what the other person says and say "um-hmm" once in a while. Even if you don't want to listen to some one you can use these skills and make them feel like you are listening to them. However the smart thing is just to listen to them attentively because they feel helped at the end and you feel like you did a great deed too.

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REAL MEN

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Real Men

A father is a man who is part of the creation of a child and a man who raises that child since birth. Many men will initiate the steps of fatherhood and nine months later will fail to complete those steps. There are many house holds in the United States that consists of single mothers. Fathers of today's society tend to give up on the whole family and walk out. David Blankenhorn, author of Life Without Father, states in his essay "The 0's child must say My father left me permanently because he wanted to." Society is filled with fatherless children. Real men go by their responsibilities and do not give up on the family to leave the mother on her own.

To be a man, a man has to have courage, responsibility and self trust. The courage comes up when it is time to face a serious incident that can mean life or death. Courage is also needed to face and walk the steps of fatherhood. Throughout fatherhood, a man needs to be responsible about his child's mother and most of all, the child itself. The father needs to help cook and clean while the mother is taking care of the children. Real men do not hesitate to alternate positions with the mother. Many men most likely do not trust themselves with children. Men probably think "I don't think I can do take care of a child." When the unreal men think about it a lot they open the door and leave. Real men abide by all three characteristics and are great fathers.

Our children will be whatever the parents raise them to be. Most parents follow their culture and raise their children exactly how they were raised. Modern parents create their own way of raising their children and put the culture aside. If a child is taught to have good manners, respect others and to be responsible then that child will grow up to be a well educated and respectful person. Fathers tend to be in charge of teaching their children these lessons of life because a father is the man of the house. A father is more intimidating then a mother so the children will listen more to their father than their mother.

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Finally, if everyone raises their children properly then society will not be half as bad. The young boys will grow up to be loving fathers who take care of the wife and kids with no problems. David Blankenhorn's essay is pretty bias with the fact of putting many fathers down and not showing the pros and cons of fathers. In conclusion, fathers are not the same as before. Many more children are left without fathers in the U.S. everyday. It is all about culture and how one was raised.

Please note that this sample paper on REAL MEN is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on REAL MEN, we are here to assist you. Your college papers on REAL MEN will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Legal System 2003

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The Legal System 00

In Australia each of the Federal and State systems incorporates the three arms of government legislative, executive and judicial. The High Court of Australia, however, is the final court of appeal in respect of all matters, whether decided in Federal or State jurisdictions, and the Federal Parliament is empowered under the Constitution to invest State courts with Federal jurisdiction.

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State Courts can hear both civil and criminal cases, which may in turn be heard before a magistrate or judge, with or without a jury

Each state has its own court system to administer state laws. As well, because we have a federal system of government, there are several federal courts to administer federal laws. Some of the federal courts also hear appeals from state courts. And some State courts have jurisdiction over some federal laws. The highest court in Australia is a federal court - the High Court of Australia.

Australian State and Territory courts have original jurisdiction in all matters brought under State or Territory laws, and in matters arising under federal laws, where jurisdiction has been conferred on the courts by the Commonwealth Parliament. Most criminal matters, whether arising under Commonwealth, State or Territory law, are dealt with by State or Territory courts.

The Local Court of New South Wales hears matters of both criminal and civil nature. Local Courts in New South Wales have jurisdiction to deal with

• the vast majority of criminal and summary prosecutions,

• civil matters with a monetary value of up to $40,000,

• committal hearings,

• family law matters,

• child care proceedings,

• juvenile prosecutions and care matters, and

• coronial inquiries.

All criminal matters begin in the Local Court. The majority are summary offences and is dealt with at this level. In addition, most civil law matters are also dealt with by the Local court.

Having the Local Court deal with matters saves time and expense. Juries are not used, which reduces court costs, and the less formal nature of the court allows the parties to be represented by solicitors rather than the more expensive barristers.

The New South Wales courts of summary jurisdiction are presided over by a Magistrate and deal with most of the ordinary (summary) offences, such as traffic infringements, minor assaults and street offences.

Magistrates also conduct committal proceedings in respect of the more serious offences to determine whether there is a prima facie case to be determined by a Judge and jury, either in an intermediate court or a Supreme Court. Juries are not used in courts of summary jurisdiction.

In most jurisdictions, these courts also deal with civil litigation for debt recovery, smaller claims by one citizen against another or against a company, as well as certain maintenance, custody and property disputes under jurisdiction conferred by the Family Law Act.

Crimes can be broken into major categories summary offences and indictable offences. A summary offence is one of lesser nature, such as shoplifting or non-payment of fines. It is heard before a magistrate in a Local Court. This is known as hearing the case summarily. An indictable offence is of more serious nature and is tried by a judge and jury in the District Court; more serious indictable offences will be heard in the Supreme Court.

Local Courts CIVIL CASES CRIMINAL CASES

- Claims up to $40 000

- Small Claims Division up to $000 - Summary Offences

- Indictable offences heard summarily

- Committal proceedings (magistrate)

The Local courts of summary jurisdiction are presided over by a Magistrate and deal with most of the ordinary (summary) offences, such as traffic infringements, minor assaults and street offences.

Magistrates also conduct committal proceedings in respect of the more serious offences to determine whether there is a prima facie case to be determined by a Judge and jury, either in an intermediate court or a Supreme Court. Juries are not used in courts of summary jurisdiction.

In most jurisdictions, these courts also deal with civil litigation for debt recovery, smaller claims by one citizen against another or against a company, as well as certain maintenance, custody and property disputes under jurisdiction conferred by the Family Law Act.

District Court of New South Wales

Jurisdiction

The District Court is the intermediate Court in New South Wales and deals with

Criminal cases

The District Court handles most of the serious criminal cases that come before the courts in New South Wales. It has responsibility for indictable criminal offences, that is, serious criminal offences which are normally heard by a Judge and Jury but on occasions by a Judge alone.

The District Court does not deal with treason, piracy and murder.

Civil cases

In general, the District Court also handles civil cases where the amount being claimed is up to $750,000. The Court can deal with cases where larger amounts are involved if the parties to the case agree. The court can also deal with certain types of equitable claims or demands for recovery of money or damages to a maximum amount of $750,000. The court has an unlimited jurisdiction in claims for damages for personal injuries arising out of a motor vehicle accident. The Court also deals with cases under a number of Acts of Parliament such as the Property Relationships Act, The Family Provision Act and the Testators Family Maintenance and Guardianship of Infants Act.

Registry Services

The District Court Registry administers the sitting of the District Court and provides clients of the Court with registry services. These services include

• processing documents for civil and criminal proceedings,

• providing information on procedures for the Courts jurisdiction,

• maintaining and managing court records, and

• providing information and facilities for some alternative dispute resolution.

Publications

The District Court produces an Annual Review, which outlines the Courts performance and achievements over the calendar year.

A Strategic Plan has also been published by the Court. This plan sets out the goals of the court and the priorities for the future.

Introduction to the Federal Magistrates Service

The Federal Magistrates Service was established by the Commonwealth Parliament at the end of 1.

The service is established by the Federal Magistrates Act 1.

The service is an independent federal court under the Australian Constitution. When sitting as a court the Federal Magistrates Service uses the name Federal Magistrates Court of Australia. The establishment of the Federal Magistrates Service marked a change in direction in the administration of justice at the federal level in Australia. Australia had not previously had a lower level federal court although a considerable amount of federal law work had been done in state and territory courts of summary jurisdiction under the provisions of the Judiciary Act.

The jurisdiction of the Federal Magistrates Service includes family law and child support, administrative law, bankruptcy, unlawful discrimination, consumer protection law and privacy law. The service shares those jurisdictions with the Family Court of Australia and the Federal Court of Australia. Some work in those jurisdictions will continue to be done in state courts also.

The service is responsible for administering its own affairs and in the management of those affairs the Chief Federal Magistrate is assisted by the Chief Executive Officer. Although the legislation to establish the service was passed at the end of December 1, the Chief Federal Magistrate and the Chief Executive Officer were not appointed until February and March 000 and the first federal magistrates were appointed in June 000. The first sittings of the Federal Magistrates Service were on July 000 in Adelaide, Melbourne, Newcastle, Brisbane, Townsville, and Parramatta. The Federal Magistrates Service now also sits in Canberra, Launceston and Sydney with regular circuit sitting to a number of metropolitan and regional centres including Darwin and Dandenong.

The Federal Magistrates Service was established to provide a simpler and accessible service for litigants and to ease the workload of both the Family Court of Australia and the Federal Court of Australia. When the service has been fully established the Family Court of Australia and the Federal Court of Australia will focus on the more complex matters. While there is no strict indicator of complexity, a general guide is that less complex matters will require less than days court hearing time.

The establishment of the Federal Magistrates Service complemented the federal governments initiatives aimed at encouraging people to resolve disputes through primary dispute resolution. The service will be able to call on a range of means to resolve disputes and there will be no automatic assumption that every matter will end in a contested hearing. The use of conciliation counselling and mediation will be strongly encouraged in appropriate cases. The service will use community based counselling and mediation services as well as the existing counselling and mediation services of the Family and Federal Courts, providing as wide as possible choice for clients of the service.

The service shares its jurisdiction with the Federal Court of Australia and the Family Court of Australia. There are arrangements in the legislation for the transfer of matters between the courts. The arrangements enable a matter to be transferred to the court that is the most appropriate having regard to the complexity of the legal issues involved or the evidence in the matter.

FEDERAL COURT OF AUSTRALIA

ABOUT THE COURT

Court Administration

The Federal Court of Australia, created by the Federal Court of Australia Act 176, began to exercise its jurisdiction on 1 February 177. It assumed jurisdiction formerly exercised in part by the High Court of Australia and the whole of the jurisdiction of the Australian Industrial Court and of the Federal Court of Bankruptcy.

The Court is a superior court of record and a court of law and equity. It sits in all capital cities in Australia and elsewhere in Australia from time to time.

The Courts original jurisdiction is conferred by over 150 statutes of the Australian Parliament.

The Court exercises appellate jurisdiction over decisions of single judges of the Court, decisions of the Supreme Court of Norfolk Island, decisions of the Federal Magistrates Service in non-family law matters and certain decisions of Australian State Supreme Courts exercising federal jurisdiction.

The Chief Justice is responsible for managing the administrative affairs of the Court. The Chief Justice may delegate any of his administrative powers to judges. The Registrar may assist the Chief Justice by exercising powers on his behalf in relation to the Courts administrative affairs.

Mr. Warwick Soden is the Registrar of the Court. The Registrar is appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the Chief Justice. The Registrar has the same powers as the head of a Statutory Agency of the Australian Public Service in respect of the officers and staff of the Court employed under the Public Service Act 1.

The administration of the Court is assisted by committees of judges, which include the following committees

• Admiralty

• Assisted dispute resolution

• Audit

• Bankruptcy

• Corporations

• Equality and the law

• Federal Court Reports

• Finance

• Information technology

• Judicial education

• Library

• Management of appeals

• Native title coordination

• Practice and procedure

• Rules

• Security

• Transcript

Each committee is supported by staff of the Court and its role is defined by its terms of reference.

The officers and staff of the Court (other than the Registrar and some Deputy Sheriffs) are appointed or employed under the Public Service Act. On June 0 00 there were 81 persons employed Australia-wide as registry staff or as judges personal staff. Generally, judges have two personal staff members.

As a consquence of the Workplace Relations and other Legislation Amendment Act 16, the jurisdiction of the Industrial Relations Court of Australia was transferred to other Courts, mainly the Federal Court of Australia. On 5 May 17 the staff and resources of the Industrial Relations Court of Australia were transferred to the Federal Court of Australia.

The Court provides operational support to the Australian Competition Tribunal, Copyright Tribunal, Defence Force Discipline Appeal Tribunal and Federal Police Disciplinary Tribunal. This support includes the providion of registry services to accept and process documents for tribunal proceedings, collect tribunal fees (where payable), list matters for hearing, and to otherwise assist in the management and determination of proceedings.

• Australian Competition Tribunal

• Copyright Tribunal

• Defence Force Discipline Appeal Tribunal

• Federal Police Disciplinary Tribunal

The Registrars of the Tribunals, the Deputy Registrars and staff who assist in the tribunals' management are generally officers employed within the Federal Court of Australia.

Inquiries concerning the Tribunals may be made to the Registrar of the particular tribunal care of any Registry of the Federal Court of Australia.

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Business ethics

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From a business perspective, working under government contracts can be a very lucrative proposition. In general, a stream of orders keep coming in, revenue increases and the company grows in the aggregate. The obvious downfalls to working in this manner is both higher quality expected as well as the extensive research and documentation required for government contracts. If a part fails to perform correctly it can cause minor glitches as well as problems that can carry serious repercussions, such as in the National Semiconductor case. When both the culpable component and company are found, the question arises of how extensive these repercussions should be. Is the company as an entity liable or do you look into individual employees within that company? From an ethical perspective one would have to look at the mitigating factors of both the employees and their superiors along with the role of others in the failure of these components. Next you would have to analyze the final ruling from a corporate perspective and then we must examine the macro issue of corporate responsibility in order to attempt to find a resolution for cases like these.

The first mitigating factor involved in the National Semiconductor case is the uncertainty, on the part of the employees, on the duties that they were assigned. It is plausible that during the testing procedure, an employee couldnt distinguish which parts they were to test under government standards and commercial standards. In some cases they might have even been misinformed on the final consumers of the products that they tested. In fact, ignorance on the part of the employees would fully excuse them from any moral responsibility for any damage that may result from their work. Whether it is decided that an employees is fully excused, or is given some moral responsibility, would have to be looked at on an individual basis.

The second mitigating factor is the duress or threats that an employee might suffer if they do not follow through with their assignment. After the bogus testing was completed in the National Semiconductor labs, the documentation department also had to falsify documents stating that the parts had surpassed the governmental testing standards. From a legal and ethical standpoint, both the testers and the writers of the reports were merely acting as agents on direct orders from a superior. This was also the case when the plant in Singapore refused to falsify the documents and were later falsified by the employees at the have California plant before being submitted to the approval committees (Velazquez, 5). The writers of the reports were well aware of the situation yet they acted in this manner on the instruction of a supervisor. Acting in an ethical manner becomes a secondary priority in this type of environment. As stated by Alan Reder, . . . if they [the employees] feel they will suffer retribution, if they report a problem, they arent too likely to open their mouths. (11). The workers knew that if the reports were not falsified they would come under questioning and perhaps their employment would go into jeopardy. Although working under these conditions does not fully excuse an employees from moral fault, it does start the divulging process for determining the order of the chain of command of superiors and it helps to narrow down the person or department that issued the original request for the unethical acts.

The third mitigating factor is one that perhaps encompasses the majority of the employees in the National Semiconductor case. We have to balance the direct involvement that each employee had with the defective parts. Thus, it has to be made clear that many of the employees did not have a direct duty with the testing departments or with the parts that eventually failed. Even employees, or sub-contractors, that were directly involved with the production were not aware of the incompetence on the part of the testing department. For example, the electrical engineer that designed the defective computer chip could act in good faith that it would be tested to ensure that it did indeed meet the required government endurance tests. Also, for the employees that handled the part after the testing process, they were dealing with what they believed to be a component that met every governmental standard. If it was not tested properly, and did eventually fail, isnt the testing department more morally responsible than the designer or the assembly line worker that was in charge of installing the chip? Plus, in large corporations there may be several testing departments and is some cases one may be held more responsible than another depending on their involvement. A process like this can serve the dual purpose of finding irresponsible employees as well as those that are morally excused. Custom Essays on business ethics

The fourth mitigating factor in cases of this nature is the gauging of the seriousness of the fault or error caused by this product. Since National Semiconductor was repeatedly being reinstated to the listed of approved government contractors, one can safely assume that the level of seriousness, in the opinion of For the contractor approval committees, is not of monumental importance. Yet one has to wonder how this case would have been different if the lack of testing did cause the loss of life in either a domestic or foreign military setting. Perhaps the repercussions would have come faster much more stringent. The fact that National Semiconductor did not cause a death does not make them a safe company. They are still to be held responsible for any errors that their products cause, no matter the magnitude.

As for the opposition to the delegating of moral responsibility, mitigating factors and excusing factors, they would argue that the entity of the corporation as a whole should be held responsible. The executives within a corporation should not be forced to bring out all of the employees responsible into a public forum. A company should be reprimanded and be left alone to carry out its own internal investigation and repercussions. From a business law perspective this is the ideal case since a corporation is defined as being a separate legal entity. Furthermore, the opposition would argue that this resolution would benefit both the company and the government since it would not inconvenience either party. The original resolution in the National Semiconductor case was along these lines. The government permanently removed National from its approved contractors list and then National set out to untangle the web of culpability within its own confines. This allowed a relatively quick resolution as well as the ideal scenario for National Semiconductor.

In response, one could argue that the entity of a corporation has no morals or even a concept of the word, it is only as moral and ethical as the employees that work in that entity. All of the employees, including top ranking executives are working towards advancing the entity known as their corporation (Capitman, 117). All employees, including the sub-contractors and assembly line workers, are in some part morally responsible because they should have been clear on their employment duties and they all should have been aware of which parts were intended for government use. Ambiguity is not an excusing factor of moral responsibility for the workers. Also, the fact that some employees failed to act in an ethical manner gives even more moral responsibility to that employee. While some are definitely more morally responsible than others, every employee has some burden of weight in this case. In fact, when the government reached a final resolution, they decided to further impose repercussions and certain employees of National Semiconductor were banned from future work in any government office (Velazquez, 54).

Looking at the case from the standpoint of National Semiconductor, the outcome was favorable considering the alternate steps that the government could taken. As explained before, it is ideal for a company to be able to conduct its own investigation as well as its own punishments. After all, it would be best for a company to determine what specific departments are responsible rather than having a court of law impose a burden on every employee in its corporation. Yet, since there are ethical issues of dishonesty and secrecy involved, National Semiconductor should have conducted a thorough analysis of their employees as well as their own practices. It is through efforts like these that a corporation can raise the ethical standard of everyone in their organization.

This case brings into light the whole issue of corporate responsibility. The two sides that must ultimately be balanced are the self interests of the company, with main goal of maximum profit, and the impacts that a corporation can cause on society (Sawyer, 78). To further strengthen this need, one could argue that there are very few business decisions that do not affect society in way or another. In fact, with the plethora of corporations, society is being affected on various fronts; everything from water contamination to air bag safety is a concern. The biggest problem that all of us must contend with is that every decision that a business makes is gauged by the financial responsibility to their corporation instead of their social responsibility to the local community, and in some cases, the international community. This was pointed out on various occasions as the main reason why National Semiconductor falsified their reports. The cost that the full tests would incur did not outweigh their profit margins. Their business sense lead them to do what all companies want . . . maximum profit. In the opinion of the executives, they were acting in a sensible manner. After all, no executive wants to think of themselves as morally irresponsible. (Capitman, 118).

The question that naturally arises, in debating corporate responsibility, is what types of checks and balances can be employed within a company to ensure that a corporation and all of its agents act in an ethical manner. Taking the example of the National Semiconductor case, one can notice many failures in moral responsibility. National Semiconductor would have to review its employees, particularly the supervisors, for basic ethical values such as honesty. example, ultimately it was the widespread falsification of the testing documentation that caused the downfall of National Semiconductor, not the integrity of their components. In the synopsis of the case it is never mentioned that the employees initiated this idea, it would seem that it was the supervisors that gave the order to falsify the documents. In order to accomplish this, the company executives would have to encourage their employees to voice their concerns in regards to the advancement of the company. Through open communication, a company can resolve a variety of its ethical dilemmas. As for the financial aspects of the corporation, it has to decide whether the long term effects that a reprimand from the government can have outweighs their bottom line. In other words, corporations have to start moving away from the thought of instant profit and start realizing both the long term effects and benefits. These long term benefits can include a stronger sense of ethics in the work force as well as a better overall society.

To conclude, I must say that I agree with the use of mitigating factors in determining moral responsibility. A company, as defined by law, is only a name on a piece of paper. The company acts and conducts itself according to the employees that work in that entity. I use the word employee because in ethical thinking there should be no distinction of rank within a company. There are times when executives can be held directly responsible and at the same time, there are cases where employees are acting unethically without the executives knowing. Neither title of executive or employee equates to moral perfection. Therefore, when a company has acted irresponsibly, its employees must be held liable in a proportionate amount. As for the future of ethics in business I would speculate that if employees started to think more in long term benefits and profits, many of the ethical dilemmas that we face today would be greatly reduced. As mentioned before, businesses today uses the measuring stick of profitability. There needs to be a shift to the thinking of total utility for the social community in order to weigh business decisions.

Opponents would argue that this is a long term plan that require too many radical changes in the face of business. Also, there is no way that an industry wide standard can be set since there are too many types of corporations. Plus, companies have different needs and every moral rule is subjective according to the type of business that everyone conducts.

In response, I would argue that although there are no industry standards that are feasible, it is possible for every company to examine their practices as well as the attitude of their employees. There will be companies that find that they are doing fine with employees that are aware of their moral values. Yet other companies will find that they do have areas that need improvement. It is steps like these that start implementing changes. Once a few companies start to see the benefits of changes, it can help to encourage other companies to follow suit. After all, as seen in the case of National Semiconductor, mistakes in one department can cause the deterioration of an entire corporation. When the costs that are possible are taken into account, the changes required to rectify this are small in comparison

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China economic policy

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"Peering Toward the Future While Tilting Back into the Past"

The Struggle to Open China's Markets

Dating back to the Qing Dynasty, the popular assumption among the Chinese was "that China was the "central" kingdom and that other countries were, by definition, peripheral, removed from the cultural center of the universe. The Chinese, therefore, showed little interest in precise information or detailed study of foreign countries" (Spence, 11). The Qing seemed uninterested in any foreign gains to be made due to this superior view of themselves. The Emperor Qianlong's approach as mentioned in The First Edict of September 17 seemed to be, "We possess all things. I set no value on objects strange or ingenious, and have no use for [other] countries manufacturers" (Cheng, 104-106). Emperor Qianlong believed that both China and foreign governments had little to gain though trade. China has long had a policy of isolation from western powers, to the extent that a force of anti-foreign nationalism arose to the forefront for the majority of Chinese modern history. Ethnocentric views of superiority and autarky led their leaders to believe isolation was in their country's best interest. However, today China has entered a period of modernization and westernization, by no longer excluding the Western influence through political and economic isolation. As a result, China has begun to reap the benefits of Western trade, technology and capitalist ideas now that the force of "anti-foreign nationalism" has diminished from Chinese thought.

Although Qianlong had pursued an economic policy of isolation in the latter half of the 18th century some ports were open to foreign trade during certain periods of the year. During these time periods the Chinese experienced equal trade rights with the West. As a result of the growing demand for Chinese teas, porcelain, silks, and decorative goods in the West, trade began to soar. Accordingly, since the idea of anti-foreign nationalism and ethnocentrism proposed the West had nothing of manufactured value to China, the trade conducted was in exchange for silver.

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By the 1780's China was prospering, gaining incredible amounts of wealth from exporting goods such as tea and silk, while importing large amounts of silver. In effect, China had a surplus balance of trade. The west, namely Britain, knew that in order to stop silver from leaving their country they had to find a trading good that China would accept in exchange for the teas, and silks. Britain's interests in the large areas of India gave way to the production and sale of opium, a cash crop that would, in turn, balance the trade with China as the drug became extremely popular among Chinese citizens.

However, in 181 the Chinese government prohibited the sale and use of opium as they came to realize the harsh effects the drug had on the population, and the hindering effect it posed on trade. The onset of the Opium War sparked years later as British merchants refused to stop selling the opium to the Chinese. With a British victory in China concluding the Opium War, Chinese trade rights with the West fell apart. Unequal treaties were forced upon the Chinese, opening more ports in China, ultimately favoring British trade, while making China merely a trade tool of the West. Nonetheless, prior to the Opium War we saw that with equal trade rights China had vast amounts of economic prosperity when partnered with the West. This suggests that China did have much to gain through trade with the West, and if today in the modern world China were to poses equal trade rights with the West they again would prosper.

Westerners have continually attempted to infiltrate East Asian countries strict foreign policies and conservative views. Both Korea and China saw the West as a threat to their sovereignty, culture, and way of life, and decided to play out a policy of isolation. Refusing and fearing modernization, which, inevitably would lead to "westernization." On the other hand, the example of Japanese history provides hindsight that would suggest trade and open arms to Western ideas would greatly benefit the developing nations of East Asia. Ever since Commodore Perry arrived on the coast of Japan their culture, economic strength, way of life and standard of living has flourishing. Japanese dominance in East Asia arose immediately, as not only an economic and cultural heart, but also a military power that would now lay threat to Korea, China and Russia. From Japan's modernization, we see that the technology, and innovation received through trade with the West was essential to their success as a superpower. Indeed, we must infer that if nations such as China and Korea had the open arms policy that Japan adopted they too would have emerged as economic and military powers prior to the WWII, allowing for them to resist the imperialistic expansionism that Japan posed threat to in the first half of the 0th century.

Indeed, it seems as though Chinese scholars recognized this as Social Darwinism became popular in the 0th century. While China sat back and witnessed the growth and dominance of Japan through their plentiful steps in modernization during the late 1th and early 0th century, Chinese scholars began to question Confucianism, and their culture as a whole. Confucianism had forced the people to hold on to the "old" Chinese way of life, allowing for little change, and opposing westernization. However, while Japan expressed its imperialism by colonizing Korea, Social Darwinism suggested to the Chinese scholars that they may too, like Korea, be inferior to the modernized Japan. China, fearing that they would face extinction unless they adopted major government reforms and attempted to step into the modern world, finally began to shift away from the fear of modernization and westernization.

In hindsight, we see that China initially tried to seclude itself by trading internally only during the 18th century since leaders felt foreign goods were unuseful. However, after years of European infringement upon East Asia, in which Westerners struggled to transform China into a nation with open arms for Western goods, it ironically was the fear of Japanese expansion that would force Chinese modernization.

Yet, now that the Chinese had decided to step into the modern world to protect itself from Japan, they would fall into the hands of Communism. China adopting Communism would further frustrate the West as Communism shut the large markets, and excluded trade to other communist nations such as the Soviet Union. The West saw its failure to open the markets of China as Communism rose under the leadership of Mao Zedong.

Communism was greatly influenced by two main factors in China. Firstly, the discontent toward French (West) society by Chinese students and government officials living there. Chinese students during the early 0th century had been studying in France, and working in factories to pay their tuition. They saw daily life as a struggle since money was short and tuition was high. These students would later form the Communist government in China. Similarly, the hatred grew for the French and its allies as the Treaty of Versailles divided Chinese land that was previously controlled by Germany among the Allied nations instead of returning it to China. Secondly, the support the Soviet Union provided in aid and soldiers to protect China from Japan allowed for a strong relationship between the leaders of the emerging communist party in China and the leaders of the Soviet Union. Indeed the aid provided by the Soviet Union was essential in gathering support for the Communist Party in China. Also, the Chinese citizenry now had a growing respect for the Soviets after they protected China from Japan.

Nonetheless, with the fall of the Soviet Union as a superpower after the Cold War, the influence of Communism diminished in China. The Russian government grew a reputation of corruption and instability. Would China inevitably follow? Certainly the fall of the Soviet Economy under the communist regime must have worried Chinese businessmen hoping for trade with their northern ally. It seems as though China recognized its economy could not stabilize without the former Soviet Union whom had been critical in supporting not only the Chinese economy but communist political spectrum as well. Such support was most evident during the civil war years as The Soviet Union sent missionaries to shanghai to support the communist regime. Indeed, China has therefore began to step into a more open market economy, which is extremely ironic since this is what the West has wanted all along, and now finally that they had seemed to give up on opening China, they accomplished it indirectly by coming out of the Cold War on top, forcing China to seek new means of economic prosperity.

It was President Nixon who took advantage of China's economic and political instability as he visited Mao Zedong in 17, sparking a revolutionary movement leading China reluctantly towards an open market economy. Just like the Europeans had done centuries before, he too was participating in the grand attempt by Western nations to further open the Chinese markets. As a result, China began to peer forward into the process of "westernization" while still holding on to its dear Marxist-Leninism / Confucianism ideals that had been so prominent in the past. Consequently, by 186 students and intellectuals had become infuriated with their government and conducted "a series of demonstrations demanding that democratic right be granted to the Chinese people so that the economic modernization could take place in a more open atmosphere"(Spence, 50)

As a result, by the 170's "rural families were allowed to increase vastly the amount of land they could till as private plots and sell the produce on the open market at unpegged prices. On a smaller scale, urban entrepreneurs were encouraged to experiment with non-exploitative business" (Spence, 50)

Such vast changes in the Chinese government ideals, and economy led to problems of corruption and structure. China was in a predicament; as a result of the new economic reforms a new class of Chinese businessmen had been formed, and they were able to greatly benefit from the new economic reforms. Consequently, this new class of Chinese businessmen had large amounts of money with which they "were thirsting for consumer goods"(Spence,50). Ultimately they began to import illegally from outside nations. Herein lies the main conflict for the Chinese government; they were and are caught between their new economic reforms and there old governmental ideals.

Indeed, the new economic reforms which show signs of capitalism, have led to huge economic prosperity, similar to that of what China saw in the 18th century when it traded their silks for British silver. Showing further signs China plans to continue its economic reforms leading toward an open market economy China has entered the World Trade Organization (WTO), and since has "expanded its exports and improved absorption of foreign investment through using opportunities provided by its WTO membership. In the first 10 months this year [00], China's foreign trade went up 1.7 percent…trade surplus amounted to 4.77bn US dollars, up 4. per cent on an annual basis"(Xinhua News Agency). Accordingly, China's GDP has been on the rise, and is predicted to further rise in 00 by as much as 8 percent.

Evidently, we see that with the fall of economic superiority in Russia (the former Soviet Union) after the Cold War, China had been forced to look else where for trade, if it were to prosper. In turn, this has encouraged more of an open market economy in China as it was forced to turn to the West for the trade lost with the Soviet Union. This has been seen by such economic reforms as privatization of some industries, and some business throughout China. The Peoples Bank of China has pledged to begin a new open market operation every Tuesday and Thursday allowing for more and more privatization of businesses.

Ironically, in the past, the West has struggled vigorously to open China's vastly populated markets to Western business and failed, only to let China to fall into the hands of a communist regime. However, now that China has escaped its old ideals and fear of westernization it has begun to accept and prosper from Western trade and technology. In the last few years China has taken enormous steps that signify its willingness to trade world wide, and conform to suit capitalist systems. Interestingly, because China is currently in a transition period due to its economic reforms it is the only nation in which you can visit the 1th and 1st century in the same country! Small hinterland communities still take to the old ways of agriculture and old ways of life while huge cities like Beijing flourish in the 1st century with sky scraping buildings that resemble that of the United States.

Bibliography

Cheng, The Search for Modern China A Documentary Collection.

Pp 104-106 (Handout)

Cummings, Bruce. Korea's Place in the Sun

W. W. Norton and Company, New York. 17.

Iuranich, Jamie. The Chinese Civil War

http//16..57.100/search?q=cacheg8UEdH66vuwCcityhonors.buffalo.k1.ny.us/city/aca/hist/ibhist/ibhiststud/histiur.html+chinese+civil+war&hl=en&ie=UTF-8

McClain, James. A Modern History Japan

W. W. Norton and Company, New York. 00.

Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China

W W Norton and Company, New York. 1.

Xinhua News Agency, Beijing, Trade official says China has performed well since WTO entry. in English 1541 gmt Nov 0

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My view on Puritanism

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Based on the literature we have read so far, I think the Puritans were very confused and irrational. They were so scared of the devil or evil that it drove them to madness. It is unbelievable to me the events that took place in the Salem witch trials. A four year old was jailed, a man was pressed to death, people were thrown in jail, convicted, and hanged on the basis of unrealiable and probably untrue evidence. The judges were unqualified and were arrogant because of their power. I am glad our court system was changed over time, because the court they had was very unfair. It was more like a show or a procedure that had to be done to make things look like it was justified. Even when the court found someone innocent, the judge would tell the jurors to reconsider. To me, it seemed like alot of it was caused by the Putnam-Porter rivalary, the threat of the Salem Town to Puritan beliefs and ways of living, and the threat of the Indian attacks. Aside from the Salem witch trials, the Puritans were very strict and somewhat hypocritical in their beliefs. They didnt allow fiction or fantasy literature because they believed literature should only be for spiritual insight and instruction. They valued frugality, self discipline for self improvement, hard work, and self relience. They settled in Jamestown in 160. Their government was theocracy-strict guidence of God. They believed one could not change their feelings by praying or church going, but must be saved by the grace of God. Their literature had a very plain style, which they valued in literature and especially religion. Unlike the pilgrims, who wished to seperate from the Church of England, the Puritans wanted to purify from within. Some popular books written by Puritans were The Bay Pslam Book and The Day of Doom by Michael Wigglesworth. Other authors were Anne Bradstreet, my personal favorite, Cotton Mathers, Increase Mathers, and Jonathan Edwards. Jonathan Edwards had sermons, that were mainly meant to make the listeners feel CONTRITE and fearful. He claimed that God held you in his hand above hell and could let you go at anytime. He also urged the sinners to ask for the grace of God and be saved before it was too late. Anne Bradstreet wrote poetry such as Upon the Burning of Our House, which is about her house being burnt down and her personal acceptance of it because she knows her true treasure is waiting in Heaven. The Puritans only lasted about a century, and by the American Revolution, few Americans would call themselves Puritans.

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