Koreans in Japan

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Koreans in Japan

Lee, Sook-Kyoung

I have a friend named Asami. She studied at my home university as an exchange student. Last winter, we went to Thailand together for sightseeing. At that time, I found she got a Korean passport. Her real name is Choi, Mami, and shefs Korean national. I could not believe that because she looked like a perfect Japanese. She told me she did not know she was Korean until she became a junior high school student. Her parents hid the fact protecting her from ethnic discrimination. I think that is also why she is using her Japanese name.

Today, approximately 700,000 North and South Korean nationals are dwelling in Japan. Although the vast majority of them were born in Japan and use Japanese as their first language, relatively few possess Japanese citizenship. It is because Japanese nationality is based on lineage, meaning that Korean descendants are not automatically awarded Japanese citizenship. Including Koreans who are naturalized and some children of Korean-Japanese intermarriages, on estimated 1% of the 10 million people in Japan are either North or South Korean nationals or Japanese nationals of Korean descent. Order custom research paper on Koreans in Japan

In Japan, there have been many problems related to Korean residents in Japan, and these problems continue in the present. They cannot be solved without understanding Koreans living in Japan. To understand Koreans living in Japan, the following should be discussed what brought them to Japan, what their legal status is in Japan, and how they have been treated. Also, identity crises of Koreans who belong to the new generation in Japan cannot be excluded because that is one of the big problems that the Korean community in Japan is faced.

Historical Background

After the annexation of Korea in 110, Koreans were forced to become the subjects of Imperial Japan. The occupying colonial policy imposed severe control on Korea. The Japanese government confiscated a significant amount of land from Korean landowners from 110 to 118. From 10 to 14, Japanese authorities initiated a project to increase rice production in Korea and exported the major part of the rice to Japan causing serious famine among Koreans. As a result, the life bases of many Koreans were devastated. Many Koreans left their country for Japan in search of jobs in order to escape the poverty at home.

Movement of Koreans between Japan and Korea (117-1)

Year Number crossing to Japan Number returning to Korea Number Residing in Japan Annual Increase

117 14,01 ,7 10,085 10,085

118 17,10 ,05 18,60 8,605

11 0,68 1,7 6,1 8,

10 7,47 0,47 ,46 6,550

11 8,118 5,56 46,051 1,58

1 70,46 46,6 70,187 4,16

1 7,5 8,745 77,87 7,650

Between 1 and 145, many Koreans were forcibly brought to Japan to work under even more severe conditions. During this same period, the Japanese military forcibly brought many young Korean women to serve them as gcomfort womenh. When Japan was defeated by the Allied Forces in 145, it is estimated that there were approximately ,00,000 Koreans in Japan.

On August 15, 145, Japan was defeated in the World War II. This meant that Koreans were liberated from Japanese colonial ruling. Many Koreans who resided in Japan at that time returned to Korea. However, between 500,000 and 600,000 Koreans remained in Japan because they had no other choice.

For the Koreans who were forcibly brought over, Japan must have been nothing more than a country against which to bear a grudge. In Japan, they had no freedom and were forced to work under severe conditions in coalmines, military plants, and construction sites for airports and huge tunnels for military use. Furthermore, they believed that their families were eagerly awaiting their safe return. There must have been no reason for them to remain in Japan.

On the other hand, those Koreans who had come to Japan earlier were different. As a result of their life bases in Korea having been demolished by Japanese colonial policy, they made the choice to come to Japan and start over again. At first, they were single migrant laborers. Gradually, this pattern transformed as they brought their families from Korea to settle in Japan. Although the Japanese discriminated against them by giving them low wages and by making them work under bad working conditions, they somehow managed to make a living. When Korea was emancipated by Japanfs defeat in World War II, these Koreans also would have liked to return to Korea. However, their families were in Japan, and they had lost their economic bases in Korea. It must have been very unlikely that they could return and start over again in Korea. Between 500,000 and 600,000 Koreans decided to remain in Japan. Other factors such as social and economic disorder in Korea and the division of Korea into two countries fortified this decision.

Legal Status of Koreans in Japan

The ROK (Republic of Korea)-Japan Normalization Treaty was signed on nd of June 165 and went into effect on 18th of December 165. The agreement on the legal status of Koreans in Japan consisted of three major parts scope and eligibility to apply for permanent residence, grounds for deportation, and subsequent legal treatment.

By this agreement, about 51,6 Koreans applied for permanent residence. To be able to obtain the certificate of eligibility, which needed for the permanent residence, one had to prove that he or she had lived in Japan for a long period of time and that he or she was South Korean national. By 174, 4,66 Koreans were granted permanent residence. The Koreans who obtained legal status by this means were called gpermanent resident aliens by treatyh. However, some 50,000 Koreans did not attempt to apply for permanent residence because of ineligibility, allegiance to North Korea, and other reasons. Japanese government did not officially recognize the government of the Democratic Peoplefs Republic of Korea in the north, and it was only after 18 that Japan granted permanent residence to individuals supporting North Korea.

Even though many Koreans achieved permanent resident alien status, there are still grounds for deportation. They will be deported if they fall into one of the following categories persons who are sentenced to imprisonment for a crime against the head of a foreign state, or a diplomatic envoy, which may be prejudicial to the interest of Japan; and persons who are sentenced to imprisonment for more than three years for violation of narcotics control laws or are charged with crimes more than three times or are sentenced to more than seven years imprisonment for the violation of any Japanese law.

The treatment of Koreans in Japan subsequent to the determination of their legal status is spelled out in Article 4 of the agreement, which states@gThe Government of Japan shall pay due consideration to the matters concerning education, livelihood protection, and national health insurance in Japanh for those granted permanent residence. In spite of this agreement, Koreans were excluded from many social welfare benefits even though they are subject to equal taxation.

If the Koreans want to acquire Japanese nationality, they should meet the standards of the Nationality Law of Japan. As a matter of fact, almost all Korean resident in Japan are technically eligible for naturalization. One of the major obstacles, however, that prevents Korean residents from being naturalized is gA person of good behaviorh clause in the provisions. In the absence of a clear definition of what constitutes ggood behaviorh, anyone with a simple police record is unlikely to pass the rigorous scrutiny by the Ministry of Justice.

Discrimination against Koreans in Japan

Educational Discrimination

gThose who attend Japanese schools should be treated equally and others differentlyh

In the area of education, most school age Koreans in Japan attend public or private Japanese schools, the majority using Japanese names. That is, they receive their education not as Koreans but as gJapaneseh, are raised without the least knowledge of the Korean language, and are exposed to Japanese prejudices and discrimination in school and society.

Some Korean students attend ethnic schools. Most of these schools are sponsored by Chongryun, which supports the Democratic Peoplefs Republic of Korea. The Education Ministry, however, refuse to recognize these schools as authorized educational institutions on the grounds that these ethnic schools do not comply with the Japanese governmentfs guidelines. The guidelines require that Korean children be educated only in Japanese language and learn Japanese history with Japanese-language textbooks. Consequently, graduates of ethnic high schools cannot take national university entrance examinations.

Employment Discrimination

Private firms often refuse to employ Koreans because of ethnic discrimination. Koreans are also excluded from holding civil service positions because such positions require Japanese nationality. Although in recent years employment discrimination has lessened somewhat in the wake of movements against discrimination, historically, most Koreans have been limited to low-level occupations like day laborers or self-service jobs.

Here is an example related to the employment discrimination. In 170, Pak, Chong-sok, using his Japanese name, successfully passed a company test for Hitachi and received an official note of hiring. As is customary in Japan, to complete his personnel file, the Hitachi Company asked him to submit a certificate showing his family register. It was then that the company learned of his Korean nationality. A few days later, Pak received a letter of rejection from the Hitachi Company on the ground that he had committed perjury by providing false information. He decided to file a suit against the Hitachi Company and won the case in 174.

In addition to the educational and employment discrimination, Koreans in Japan continue to encounter housing discrimination and are turned down for apartments by real estate agents. When they announce intention to wed a Japanese, they meet with opposition by Japanese parents. Actually, the Korean population in Japan continues to encounter discrimination in virtually all areas of life in Japan.

To oppose ethnic discrimination, Mindan (148), which supports South Korea, and Chongryun (155), which supports North Korea, were established. However, the leaders, who were first generation ethnic Koreans, considered Japan merely a temporary home, giving priority to Korean unification rather than the problems of discrimination in Japan. Consequently, these movements never developed into full-fledged, radical movements to fight discrimination in Japan and to demand full civil rights. Today, movements for the human rights of Koreans in Japan are primarily led by Mintohren (National Council For Combating Discrimination against Ethnic Peoples in Japan), which consists of the third and fourth generation ethnic Koreans and some Japanese. It was established as a result of the Hitachi employment discrimination case, but it created small groups to battle ethnic discrimination on a regional level throughout the country. Since the 170s Mintohren has contributed greatly to eliminating ethnic discrimination against Koreans in Japan and is still struggling against discrimination to achieve its ideal of living together.

Identity Crises among Korean Youth in Japan

The ascribed gself hof Korean youth in Japan has dual components the gassimilatedh self and the gdissimilatedh self. The assimilated self, on the one hand, emerge in the natural process of growing up. Without questioning, he or she internalizes Japanese culture, acquiring and using Japanese as their mother tongue. He or she has many aspects of culture in common with the surrounding Japanese majority in terms of ways of thinking, ways of feeling, values, lifestyles and so on. He or she cannot stop being aware of what a gJapanizedh identity he or she has.

On the other hand, the gdissimilatedh self distinguishes him or her from the Japanese majority in the sense that he or she maintains some elements of ethnic heritage. The degree of conformity to Korean ethnicity varies depending on individual circumstances such as the degree to which ethnic customs are practiced at home, attendance at ethnic schools, and residence in a Korean enclave. Nevertheless, whatever extent to which he or she holds Korean ethnicity, his or her ways of thinking, ways of feeling, values and lifestyles cannot be exactly same as the dominant Japanese ones.

In this situation, the vast majority of Korean youths in Japan are facing identity crises. They adopt Japanese pass names instead of Korean ethnic names. They conceal their ethnic origins in front of their Japanese peers and neighbors. Many of them have negative self-esteem or self-dislike, and some of them wish from the bottom of their hearts that they were Japanese. However, the problem is that no matter how truly they wish they were Japanese and no matter how well they act Japanese, their existence as being something different is often exposed by the Japanese people around them on diverse occasions.

There are four ways in which younger generation Koreans in Japan resolve their identity crises. First is gmutual cooperationh. Mutual cooperation symbolizes the mentality of people, whose core agenda is the realization of a society based on the recognition of ethnic differences but free of ethnic discrimination. That is, their aim is to solve the problem of social discrimination through gsocial changeh accomplished at the local level, starting with their own communities and neighbors.

Second is gresident foreign nationalh. It is the expression that represents the mentality of people, whose core agenda is to contribute to the gdevelopmenth and gunificationh of Korea. Consequently, they do not seek to assimilate into Japanese society but hold awareness as resident foreign nationals. However, having taken this position, it is difficult for them to transcend their position as foreign nationals and demand various rights. Thus, they generally manifest a strong element of gself-isolationh in their battle against ethnic discrimination.

Third is gsuccess in society using onefs abilityh. It represents the mentality of people, whose core agenda is the realization of self through assertion of individualism. They are not particularly concerned with ethnic Korean history, and nor do they feel an attachment to either Japan or Korea. Their chosen response to social discrimination is to liberate themselves through social mobility.

The last is gnaturalizationh. The core agenda of the naturalization-oriented people is to become Japanese. Typically, these people are raised in an environment surrounded only by Japanese, the entire family adopting a Japanese name and concealing their Korean ethnicity. They believe that by assimilating they can exist without experiencing ethnic discrimination.

So far, I have outlined history background of Koreans in Japan, their legal status in Japan, discrimination against them, and identity crises among younger generations. Korean residents in Japan are the victims of the Japanese colonial rule over Korea. The vast majority of them are the third or fourth generation, and they were born in Japan and speak Japanese as their first language. There is no reason for them to be discriminated in Japan, but they have been suffering from the discrimination. In recent years, discrimination against Korean residents has lessened thanks to movements against it. However, it is still prevalent and hurting Korean people.

Since North Korea admitted that secret agents of the country kidnapped 1 Japanese citizens in the 170s and 80s in the summit talks between Kim Jong Il and Koizumi Junichiro on 17 September 00 in Pyoungyang, Korean schoolboys and schoolgirls in Japan have been subjected to unwarranted attacks, unfair treatment, abuse, and blackmail. These incidents show that Japanese people neither accept Korean residents as their neighbors nor recognize the human rights of Korean residents in Japan.

To solve these problems, the Japanese government should try to guarantee the human rights of Koreans lawfully and give correct history education in Japan. Also, it would be appropriate to promote majority-minority interactions, reduce the imbalance of power, and help to dismantle the persisting discrimination. In other words, mutual understanding and cooperation between Koreans and Japanese are desperately needed for resolving the Korean residentsf problems and establishing a society where structural assimilation has been achieved while cultural diversity is openly acknowledged. Without those efforts, problems related to Korean residents in Japan would be repeated over and over again.

1. Weiner, Michael. The Origins of the Korean Community in Japan, 110-1. London Manchester University Press, 18

. Lee, Changsoo and De Vos, George. Koreans in Japan Ethnic Conflict and Accommodation. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA University of California Press, 181

. Fukuoka, Yasunori and Tsujiyama, Yukiko. gMINTOHREN Young Koreans against Ethnic Discrimination in Japanh. HAN. 1. http//www.han.org/a/fukuoka.html/ (5 December 00)

4. Fukuoka, Yasunori. gKoreans in Japan Past and Presenth. HAN. 16. http//www.han.org/a/fukuoka6a.html/ (8 November 00)

5. Fukuoka, Yasunori. gBeyond Assimilation and Dissimilation Diverse Resolutions to Identity Crises among Younger Generation Koreans in Japanh. HAN. 16. http//www.han.org/a/fukuoka6b.html/ (1 November 00)

6. S.H.Cho. gU.N. Urges Japan to Stop Discrimination against Korean School Children and Educationh. Choson Sinbo. 18.

http//www.korea-np.co.jp/pk/046th_issue/8061001.htm/ (1 January 00)

7. Choe, Hong Ryul. gReport to UNESCO on Human Rights Violationh. Choson Sinbo. 18. http//www.korea-np.co.jp/pk/046th_issue/8061007.htm/ (1 January 00)

8. gKoreans Suffer Attacks, Blackmail Due to Abductions Issueh. Choson Sinbo. 00. http//www.korea-np.co.jp/pk/185th_issue/0010107.htm/ (0 December 00)

. gLegal Line for International Residents in Japanh. The UMJ. 16-001.

http//www.tabunka.org/newsletter/legal.html#anchor117555 (1 January 00)

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Hospitality

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Experience

My significant experience was going to Hospitality Careers Academy. At the academy, I learned so many things. It introduced me to the business world of hospitality. There are thousands of fields to enter in the hospitality careers.

I went to the Hospitality Career Panel for a week. There I visited and shadowed different people from different fields in hospitality. The fields that I shadowed were Sales Manager, Marketing Production, and Hotel/Restaurant/Tourism Management. People that I interviewed from these fields seemed very intelligent. They knew so much about their jobs and were very influential. I'm glad that I got to interview different people in the hospitality careers.

I learned so much about hotels. First, I thought hotels were just about checking in and out customers but is much more than that. Hotels is mostly about management. The hotels that I visited were well managed. I also learned about customer services. At the hotel that I stayed in, customer service was amazing. They help me and served me everything that I needed. Customer service is the first impression made about the hotels.

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There were about twenty-five more students at the Hospitality Careers Panel. I had the chance to meet new people and get to know them. We also had different groups. In

groups, we had to plan a business party where business men and women from all over the nation came. We had to present our plan on the last day of the panel. There were some hotel managers and owners who came to see our presentation.

I believe knowing a little about business is very helpful in the future. Also get to

make connections of people by meeting new people. This Hospitality Careers Panel is one of my references to the future now, and it was a great experience.

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Fashion in 18th century France

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Assignment 1-the shift of fashion

Before the French Revolution in 178, fashion in France was much more understated and subtle.

After the French Revolution, a great change took place in the area of fashion. Ideas of freedom and self expression were much more common, and the fashion world was an obvious place for these ideas to take place.

France became the center of the fashionable worldCheap custom writing service can write essays on Fashion in 18th century France

Dress became more striking and elaborate. Fashion shifted from being stiff and quite uncomfortable to looser and more comfortable,while still staying quite fashionable.

At this time in France there was more freedom and people began to dress the way they wanted. Now that the working class had a greater sense of freedom and equality, they started to move away from their dull, every day clothing. Also, with the development of the sewing machine and other vast fabric producers, clothing became much easier to produce in large quantities. With fashion being mass produced, the price of it went down considerably and almost everyone could now afford even elaborate and highly decorated pieces of clothing.

During this time period in France, there was much less of a line between the classes and what each class should or could wear. Now, a middle class person of society could dress like a noble, and a noble could dress like a peasant if they were so inclined.

People would now wear clothing that was suited to their lifestyles, instead of simply just wearing what they were told to wear. For example, men adopted the short jacket suit, which was much better suited to an active lifestyle than the traditional lomg tailed suits.

Womens clothing also evolved during this time period. Their dress became less strict and more open. The style was less restrictive. Curves were now shown off, instead of hidden away.

Fashion in France would continue to evolve and become more forward.

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Career Planning

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Career Planning

In the article I read "Career development strategies for teens" it gives you very important information to use as a guideline. The article states that at this point in a young adults' life the main thing to do is get an education. While in school you gain useful skills that will help you when searching for a job. Some of these skills are communication skills and being able to work with others. Another thing that should be done at this age is participating in internships or doing volunteer work. These programs will give you and up close and personal look at the career involved. This way you will be provided with necessary information such as what skills are needed and if you have to receive any special on the job training. This way the person will be able to evaluate the situation and determine if this is a job that they really want before taking unneeded courses.

When taking the time to sit down and write out a career plan, it is important that the person remembers not to make it a life long plan. Making a plan for the rest of your life is not good because things change and different events cause things to happen. The best way to solve this problem is to write a five-year plan. This way you can actually visualize how things may turn out. It is essential that a young adult keep in mind to balance the expectations in their life. In order to do this you should listen to the advice of the people around you and at the same time remember to follow your own path. This way you will be able to create a balance between the expectations you set for yourself along with the expectations of others who are important to you.

Most importantly a young adult must remember to live life the way that they feel. It is not necessary for you to feel tied down to any situation. When a person uses these tools to set a career plan they are left with something that they can live by and stay committed to.Cheap custom writing service can write essays on Career Planning

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Studying

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First of all I would ask her why she waited till the night before to cram for the test. I would also ask her if she was studying at all during the week. I would also ask her what class she was studying for so I would better be able to help her study for it.

The first part of my advice would be to have her take a 15-minute break for every hour of studying. When you cram for a test for 10 hours straight without any breaks it is still considered one hour of studying. This is because your brain needs those 15 minutes to take in, and "file" away the things you studied, if you study for too long without a break, your mind can't keep up with the "filing" and you start to lose the information you studying first.

My second part of my advice would be to get good nights sleep. Many time s a good nights sleep is much more valuable then studying for 10 hours straight. With more sleep your brain will be less stressed and able to function better. With more sleep your brain will also be able to recall memory better from the studying. One hour of sleep is usually better then an extra hour of cramming.

I would suggest using "x5" cards for studying, especially for vocabulary quizzes. The index cards should be colored for quick reference. When using index cards you should also write important words with red ink so that your mind will remember those words better. With index cards it is also easier to separate the information from what we know to what we don't know, that way we can easily study what we don't know.

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When studying you must always start studying at least the week before the test and study slowly, and cramming the night before a test is never useful. You should also study the way you feel most comfortable. When studying it is always useful to use index cards. You should always get good nights sleep before a test, that way you'll have good memory retention

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The Protection of Minority Rights in a democracy

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Freedom means diversity. This simple truth is nowhere more evident, and more relevant, than with the peoples and countries that constitute today's global society. None of these is homologous in ethnic, cultural, or religious terms. Globalization and the increasing movement of people across borders threatens to kill off the 'nation' state once and for all. However, the dominant or majority cultures in countries around the world seek to impose their identity on other groups with whom they share a territory.

Attempts to impose cultural uniformity often come at the expense of minority rights. To avoid marginalization, minorities often intensify their efforts to preserve and protect their identity. The hardening of opposing forces assimilation versus preservation can cause increased intolerance, ultimately leading to armed ethnic conflict in a worst-case scenario. African slavery, the Holocaust, and the relatively recent war in Kosovo, are only a few of history's brutal examples of humanity's selfish nature. In examining Thomas Hobbes' views on the natural state of man (as a selfish being with little or no concern for the well-being of others), it becomes evident that the protection and promotion of minority rights is essential in order to save humanity, essentially from itself.

Minority rights must be protected at all costs. Although some individuals believe that the will of the majority is paramount to the protection of minorities, opponents of such a belief will argue that the protection of minorities is, in fact, the protection of the majority. To illustrate this point, one only needs to compare history and present times to recognize the subtle fact that the Caucasian male, which once constituted a majority in Canada and the United States, is now a statistical minority. Therefore, a majority ethnic, cultural, or religious group must take steps to ensure the protection of minority rights in the event they become a minority, thus protecting their own rights. President John F. Kennedy addressed this same principle when he said, "[This nation] was founded on the principle that all men are created equal and that the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened." The need to protect minority rights is obvious, but a highly opinionated debate has risen on how to protect minority rights. The extent to which minority rights are protected must consider the role of governance inside state borders, the role of governance and mediation beyond state borders, and the debate over affirmative action.

Good governance plays a vital role in involving minorities in society and protecting their rights and interests. Through recognition, dialogue, and participation, all the citizens of a diverse society can form a greater understanding of one another's concerns. Socialist Robert Owen, for example, believed that education was a way to eliminate crime and prejudice. Therefore, greater understanding equals greater tolerance for the ever-present diversities in society. The media and education have important roles in this regard, as do political representatives and community leaders. Write your The Protection of Minority Rights in a democracy research paper

Discrimination against minorities is battled most effectively in courts of law and state legislatures. Proper legislation is the first step towards ensuring minorities are protected in society. Such efforts are backed by the rule of law and the corresponding belief that even if individuals do not agree with court rulings or legislative policies, citizens are bound to obey this policy. If they disagree, they have the option to lobby the legislature or sue in the courts, rather than rampaging in the streets. Governments may also protect the rights of minorities, and all people for that matter, by entrenching basic liberties in a constitution. Such is the case in Canada and the United States where a Bill of Rights limits the ability of government to trespass upon certain individual liberties. It also places certain liberties beyond the reach of majorities to protect present and future generations. This credo of individual equality forces people to confront their prejudices against certain groups. Although nations with individual rights entrenched in their constitutions may not be free from discrimination, the existence of such a constitution is a public commitment to ending all vestiges of racial, ethnic, cultural, and religious prejudice.

Although no country has a perfect record on minority rights, a country like Finland, for example, has worked hard to implement legislation in order to promote ethnic relations among its population and act as a role model for pluralism and tolerance in multicultural societies. Swedish Finns represent the largest minority (6% of the population) yet still enjoy exceptional status in society. This can be attributed to the fact that Swedish, in addition to Finnish, is an official language in Finland. The people of Finland have recognized the right for Swedes (and their language) to be recognized under the law and have made accommodations to help preserve their cultural heritage. In recent years, the government has made significant efforts to address the question of land ownership by the Saami, the indigenous peoples of Finland and neighboring Scandinavian countries. In addition, Finland amended its 11 constitution in February of 1 to shift power from the president to the parliament and made additions regarding individual human rights.

State authorities need to ensure that minorities enjoy the fundamental right to equality, both in written legislation and in society. Actions taken by states to accomplish this include higher maximum penalties for racially motivated crimes, the use of ethnic monitoring and employment targets to ensure minorities are not underrepresented in various fields of work, and the establishment of human rights institutions and minority advisory bodies. Local governments, civic organizations, and non-governmental organizations are important in carrying out these tasks. For example, law enforcement officers, legal councils, and judges need to be aware of what constitutes racial discrimination and racially motivated crimes. Changing the composition of police forces may be appropriate to reflect the multi-ethnic communities they serve. Above all else, it is critical that minorities integrate themselves into their communities and take a proactive position towards ensuring their rights are fully recognized.

Although the measures available to governments are quite effective in combating minority prejudices, there are some special instances where these measures fail to protect an ethnic, linguistic, or religious group as a whole. When such a group is not isolated within a defined state boundary, instead the group is present in several states, difficulties may arise. While some governments and their respective societies may be able to protect such a group, others may not be able or willing to make any needed concessions. As a painful result, the need for international governance, or regulation beyond borders becomes necessary.

Analysis of the current state of affairs will give insight into the need for international protection of minority rights. The case of the Roma provides critical insight into the problems faced by the world today. The majority of the estimated ten million Roma, more commonly known as Gypsies, live primarily in Europe, and they make up the continent's largest minority group. Roma reside in other parts of the world as well, including North and South American, Australia, and India. At first, the Roma were generally well received in Europe, but their unfamiliar customs and "closed" society soon aroused widespread harassment. Dating back as early as 14, when the Christian conquest replaced Muslim rule in Spain, Roma have been a clear target for persecution and discrimination. This tendency towards ethnic hatred further developed in France and England, where government policy repressed the Roma to the point of being exiled. Beginning in the 15th century, the Hungarian and Romanian nobles went so far as to enslave the Roma, a trend that lasted for over four centuries.

Discrimination against Roma, however, intensified during World War II, when the Nazi's extended their persecution of Jews to include Roma as well. As many as 500,000 Roma perished in concentration camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau and Lublin-Majdanek. In post-war Europe, the Roma were subject to government-sponsored forced assimilation programs designed to deprive them of their distinctive language and culture. In France, their access to campsites has long been restricted in an attempt to force Roma to abandon their nomadic lifestyle. Attempts to assimilate Roma, ironically, have been countered by plans to segregate them as well. In the Czech Republic, for example, one municipality proposed the building of a four-meter high wall in order to separate Roma housing from the non-Roma community is a clear example of the attempt to disengage Roma communities. In Central and Eastern Europe, there has been a systematic routing of Roma children to "special" schools for the mentally disabled. Several European countries have policies barring Roma from restaurants, swimming pools, and discotheques. In addition, the geographic distribution of Roma throughout the world presents a considerable impediment for the Roma to overcome if they wish to enjoy basic human equality.

The case of the Roma presents a considerable dilemma in the fight against minority discrimination. Since inequalities in governmental policies and social environments afflict the Roma in so many countries, it appears that there is a need to confront the situation with the global Roma community in mind, instead of directing efforts to address individual Roma populations in each respective nation. Thus, the use of international governance may prove to be the best solution for combating social and institutionalized prejudice against minority groups, such as the Roma.

Born out of the horrors of the Holocaust, the United Nations is all too aware of the dangers of intolerance when it comes to minority groups. The United Nations and its agencies have advocated protecting and promoting minority rights and identities within multi-ethnic states. For example, the General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, in 1 as a "point of reference" for the international community. It includes a list of rights that entitle minorities to enjoy and preserve their culture, participate in decisions at the national level, speak their own language, and worship in the religion of their choice, among others. States are requested to take an active role in the field of education to encourage public understanding of the history, language, and culture of minorities.

International organizations such as the United Nations and NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) are capable of influencing government policy regarding minority rights in non-member states. If a country is known to neglect the rights of minorities within its borders, the organization will lobby the government for change. Economic sanctions may be imposed to halt economic trade between the nation and member countries. The United Nations may also limit financial aid to the country to force it to change its policies. If these methods do not work, the organization may go as far as to invade the nation to force changes with military force. Such was the case when NATO began a campaign of air strikes against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia when it refused to accept an international peace plan that would have granted autonomy to the Yugoslav province of Kosovo. This was the home of many ethnic-Albanians suffering persecution by Serbian forces. As the Secretary General of the United Nations has said, "At both the human and the financial level, a culture of prevention is more beneficial than a culture of reaction." The main objective and contribution of the United Nations, in this respect, is to prevent conflicts before they happen.

Although international organizations such as the United Nations and NATO are effective in aiding in the protection of minorities across the globe, a debate arises over the actions of such organizations. Many people believe that the United Nations and its policies, for example, represent a brutal disregard for a nation's sovereignty. Even though each member nation must ratify UN resolutions in their own legislature for the policies to take full effect, many people believe nations are forced to accept United Nations policy to ensure membership in the UN and maintain good will with other countries. Despite these objections and criticism, human rights are a primary concern for these organizations, especially the United Nations. Minority rights must be protected to this extent in order to achieve equality in our global society. Countries that have pledged support of minorities within their borders have the moral obligation to ensure minorities outside their borders receive at least basic human equality. A nation's sovereignty should be sacrificed if the people within those borders, especially those representing visible minorities, are being neglected or persecuted.

In the 0th century, efforts by local, federal and international governments have been successful in laying the groundwork for ensuring equality among ethnic, linguistic, and religious minorities through legislation and guarantees of basic human freedoms (i.e. Constitutional assurances). As the next step, governments and civic organizations have taken steps to integrate minorities into society. Education, special interest groups, and political representation are a few of the measures taken to promote societal equality. However, none is more controversial than the proposal for affirmative action, or so-called "reverse racism (or discrimination)," in government and institutional policy.

Affirmative action is essentially an attempt to remedy the effects of past biases against racial minorities and women through programs of varying degrees of preference to minorities and women in admission, employment and advancement opportunities in government agencies, businesses, and universities. Supporters of affirmative action contend that it is a temporary measure used to assure fair treatment for members of groups historically subject to discrimination. Various programs are designed to bring minority groups' involvement in business and higher education up to par with their percentage composition in society. Critics, however, argue that affirmative action runs counter to the concept of a "color-blind" Constitution, violates the principle of advancement based on merit, aggravates racial and gender hostilities, and evokes feelings of inferiority in those affirmative action is designed to help. The debate over affirmative action is highly contested on both sides, and the fact that the United States Supreme Court has ruled in favor and against affirmative action on several occasions indicates that the debate will not be ended any time soon.

Personally, I am a member of a visible ethnic minority and I do not support any move towards affirmative action. Although I have not, members of my immediate and distant family have suffered considerable social and institutionalized racial discrimination in Canada, and countries around the world. I will admit that affirmative action is effective in increasing minority participation in business and universities, however, I feel affirmative action does not aid in the fight against racial and gender persecution. I sincerely hope that any future university entrance acceptances or corporate positions I may gain are based on merit and qualifications, not on membership with a visible minority group. Affirmative action is not the answer to promoting minority equality.

In conclusion, even though many governments in the world today still neglect the rights of minority groups within their boundaries, we have seen that discrimination and intolerance can be fought through the use of legislature and constitutional guarantees. Minorities and majorities alike, have the right to a meaningful life free from persecution. It is the moral responsibility for 'tolerant' nations such as Canada and the United States to become role models for the 1st century and take a proactive and defensive position for minority rights throughout the world.

With proper legislation protecting minority rights in place, the groundwork is laid to overcome the last major obstacle in the struggle for ethnic, religious, and linguistic equality social prejudice. Even though minorities in Canada and the United States are equal under the law, many suffer considerable hardships in society. It's a shame that it took a devastating attack on the United States that horrific morning of September 11th, for a nation with such a long history of social prejudice and intolerance to overcome their differences to stand up against a foreign enemy. The household slogan, "United We Stand," is faintly ironic in the sense that it took an outside attack for the United States to stand up against hatred and prejudice, when the attacks were coming from the inside for decades. I, for one, hope that more people realize this truth and that a lesson can be learned from this terrible tragedy.

Finally, government legislation and intervention can only go so far in the protection of minority rights. Programs to integrate minorities, such as affirmative action, may create more problems than they fix. Perhaps there is also a limit to what governments and civic organizations can offer for the elimination of social prejudice against minorities. They only solution I can offer is education. The more people know about differences in society, the more they will accept them. Enlightenment is the key to acceptance. Acceptance is the key to freedom.

Once again, freedom means diversity, but does diversity mean freedom?

I certainly hope so.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Minority Rights." The Boston Connection Newspaper. Retrieved from the World Wide Web, November , 00, http//www.caribbeancommunity.com/minorityrigths.html

"Roma." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 00. Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved from the World Wide Web, November 17, 00, http//encarta.msn.com

Russell, Greg. "Constitutionalism America & Beyond." International Information Publications. Retrieved from the World Wide Web, November 17, 00, http//www.usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/democracy/dmpaper.htm

"Statement by HE Marjatta Rasi, Ambassador of Finland to the United Nations on Minority Rights." The Permanent Mission of Finland to the United Nations. Retrieved from the World Wide Web, November 1, 00, http//www.un.int/finland/speechd.html

"United Nations." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 00. Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved from the World Wide Web, November 17, 00, http//encarta.msn.com

Yarbrough, Tinsley. "Protecting Minority Rights." International Information Publications. Retrieved from the World Wide Web, November 17, 00, http//www.usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/democracy/dmpaper11.htm

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