Ethnic paper

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Email Worries

First of all, a while ago, it was stated that an employer should monitor an employees email only if there was a good reason to do so. But then again, what does the presenter see as a good reason to monitor an employees email? When employers monitor an employees email to gain personal information, what action, if any, should be taken? Should there be a standard punishment for employers who monitor an employees email without a good reason? If so, what should the punishment be?

A good reason to an employer should monitor employees email would be if there were found to be some sort of information leak of private company information. Such as if the company discovered that a competitor had found out information and was using it to beat the original company. Another reason to monitor email would be if the managers noticed that an employee was on their computer a lot but was not getting much work done, and the employer wanted to see if the employee was emailing excessively instead of working, to monitor their efficiency. Employers should definitely not monitor email to gain personal information, but the punishment should depend on the position within the company. If the monitor is a manager they should be pre-warned of consequences of this misuse, and if they still abuse the monitoring they should be fired. If the company does not take action against this person, or it is the employer that is monitoring personal emails and misusing the information, the employee should take legal action against the company. The legal system should punish the company for this; probably the best way would be financially, to the whole company, or the person reading the emails.

Overall, word to the wise treat your email system at work, as you should your business phone. Strictly limit your communications with family and friends. And do not send a message if you would be uncomfortable having a co-worker or your employer read it.

Cheap College Papers on Ethnic paper

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Architecture vs drafting

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"Architecture is not produced simply by adding plans and sections to elevations. It something else and a lot more. It is impossible to explain precisely what it is. Its limits are by no means well defined. On the whole art-should not be explained, it must be experienced"

Architecture provides a framework for people's lives. Houses they live in, buildings they work in. Naturally people will feel to a building. Some will comment on how comfortable it feels, how space full and graceful it feels, how small, cozy and warm it feels. Immediately human emotions are directly in use to experience the functional sculpture it is. All senses come into play where solids and cavities evoke certain emotions, scale and proportion, rhythm, light, colour and most recently hearing. "Architecture is frozen music-so music must be melted architecture".

"Durability, use, and sex appeal" , this phrase has been referred to for many centuries as the basis of all 'good' architecture. In today's world, and more precisely Sydney Australia, the architect has been under constant scrutiny for being a money hungry-lazy builder/engineer. In comparison to the older days where the finest of artists where employed as the architects.

Their roles were powerful in shaping their society and time through their artistic expressions. They left a true and accurate description of their time, and it was from the architectural ruins that history composed it self into the mighty empires of the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and the more recent Gothic period. Buy architecture vs drafting term paper

Architecture has been sometimes referred to as an art, thus the architect tends to be called an artist as a result, a sculptor in a sense. His building becomes a type of sculpture, which people can use, associate with, and have feelings towards. It becomes a "functional art" .

This then leaves the architect with a phenomenal and awesome responsibility. Ironically the architect himself sometimes does not realize this, and consequently so will the public who continue to view it with the arrogance and the neglect of our time, the twentieth century.

Please note that this sample paper on architecture vs drafting is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on architecture vs drafting, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on architecture vs drafting will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Admininstrative State

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Introduction

Canada is a country that, historically, was built on people moving from other country to seek a new life. Refugees have played an integral role in making Canada what it is today. In 001, the total number of refugees in Canada was 7,84. As a signatory to the United Nations' Convention to Refugees, Canada is obligated to protect people who are in fear of their lives. The protection of refugees in also incorporated into the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act which in 00 replaced the Immigration Act.

The purpose of this essay is to evaluate the effectiveness of the administrative system in Canada with respect to the protection of refugees under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act. It is divided into three main sections. The first section describes Canada as an administrative state. The second section lays out both the IRPA with respect to refugees and the role of the Immigration and Refugee Board. The third section is a critique of the IRPA and the IRB with respect to their treatment of refugees.

Canada as an Administrative StateCheap custom writing service can write essays on Admininstrative State

Administrative law plays a role in everyone's life from the time of birth, and is interwoven throughout most daily activities. David J. Mullan, in Administrative Law, has described it as the "field of law that has as its concern the statutes (other than the Constitution), principles and rules that govern the operations of the government and its various emanations." Administrative law concerns the implementation and regulation of public programs which are administered under a statute. The government, either federal or provincial depending on the jurisdiction of the issue, can create an agency under a statute to deal specifically with the problem and separately from the court system. The purpose of administrative law is to oversee the fairness of the administrative procedure, the adequacy of the factual basis and the legal authority for administrative action including its constitutionality, the rational exercise of discretion, and the availability of legal remedies to challenge the abuse of power by public bodies and officials. The scope of administrative regulatory power is vast, encompassing economic activities, professions and trade, human rights, public services and social control, including the regulation of immigration and refugee admittance. The agencies which oversee the regulation of the particular public policy get their power and mandate from the statute under which they are created and are confined not only by the jurisdiction of the statue and applicable regulations and guidelines, but also by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the common law rules of procedural fairness which ensure the at both parties to a hearing be heard and that the proceedings are free from bias.

Although the courts are capable of handling disputes concerning public policy, administrative agencies are more advantageous for several reasons. First, it is often more appropriate for administrative agencies to make public policy decisions as they are much more governmental than judicial. Second, agencies have the necessary expertise and experience outside of law which judges may lack. This expertise and experience can make agencies more able to handle the needs of the disadvantaged party. Third, procedures by agencies are cheaper and waste fewer public resources than courts. This is particularly important as the disputes tend to involve small sums of money. Fourth, agencies are less formal and allow for decisions to be made more quickly and efficiently. Canadian courts are already backlogged with cases, and the numerous complaints against the government are better handled by an independent agency comprised of experts who play a more active role in the process. This isn't to say that the courts play no role in administrative law. If a decision by an agency is flawed on the basis of an error of law, fact or both, the party negatively affected by this error may have the opportunity, if the statute allows, to appeal the decision to a court, who, may uphold a the agency's decision, or overturn the decision and, depending on the statute, either send it back for a re-hearing or implement its own decision.

The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act

The statute that handles refugee protection is the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, which, along with its regulations, came into effect on June 8, 00. The IRPA replaced the Immigration Act, which was passed in 176, and had "been amended more than 0 times".

As the name suggests, the Act handles issues regarding immigration to Canada and the granting of refugee protection. The IRPA lays out eight objectives regarding refugees

1. to recognize that the refugee program is in the first instance about saving lives and offering protection to the displaced and persecuted;

. to fulfil Canadas international legal obligations with respect to refugees and affirm Canadas commitment to international efforts to provide assistance to those in need of resettlement;

. to grant, as a fundamental expression of Canadas humanitarian ideals, fair consideration to those who come to Canada claiming persecution;

4. to offer safe haven to persons with a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group, as well as those at risk of torture or cruel and unusual treatment or punishment;

5. to establish fair and efficient procedures that will maintain the integrity of the Canadian refugee protection system, while upholding Canadas respect for the human rights and fundamental freedoms of all human beings;

6. to support the self-sufficiency and the social and economic well-being of refugees by facilitating reunification with their family members in Canada;

7. to protect the health and safety of Canadians and to maintain the security of Canadian society; and

8. to promote international justice and security by denying access to Canadian territory to persons, including refugee claimants, who are security risks or serious criminals.

Pursuant to section () of the IRPA, the Act must be construed and applied in a manner consistent with Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and with any international human rights instruments which Canada has signed, and, in addition, must further the domestic and international interests of Canada. Under this the IRPA, the Governor in Council has the power to create regulations and designate the Minister who is responsible for the administration of the Act, including Part II which deals specifically with refugee protection. For the purposes of the IRPA, the Minister has the power, if permitted by the Governor in Council, to enter into an agreement with the government of a Canadian province, a foreign state, or an international organization.

Refugee Protection

Refugee protection can be conferred on Convention refugees or on persons found to be in need of protection. A Convention refugee is a person who fulfills the criteria of the United Nations' Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, which came into force on April , 154. This is a person who is in fear of persecution in his or her country of nationality or former residence due to race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion. A person in need of protection is a person who if sent back to his or her country of nationality or former residence would be personally subjected to danger of torture or subjected to a risk to life, or to cruel and unusual punishment if the person won't receive protection from that country, the person would face punishment in all parts of that country, the risk is not a lawful sanction, or the risk is not due to inadequate health or medical care.

There are three ways to confer refugee protection on a person

1. under a visa application determining the person to be a Convention;

. determination by the Immigration and Refugee Board of Convention refugee status or person in need of protection status; or

. allowance by the Minister for an application for protection.

A person described under section E or F of the Article 1 of the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees is not eligible for refugee protection. This includes people who are regarded as having the rights and obligations that a national of the country in which they are residing has, and people who have committed crimes against peace or humanity, serious non-political crimes outside the country of refuge before being admitted as a refugee, and who have been guilty of acts contrary to United Nations' purposes and principles.

It is up to the person claiming refugee status to prove that he or she is eligible for refugee protection by truthfully answering all questions asked of him or her. The person must then produce all necessary documents and information required by the Board if the claim is referred. However, there are many reasons preventing a claim from being referred

a) if refugee protection has been conferred on the person, then the claim is ineligible;

b) if the Board has already rejected the claim, a further claim is ineligible;

c) if a country other than Canada has recognized the person as a Convention refugee and the person can go to that country, then the claim is ineligible;

d) if the person came from a country complying with the Refugee Convention and the Convention Against Torture, then the claim is ineligible;

e) if the person has been determined to be a threat to security, then the claim is inadmissible.

Inadmissibility

A person is classified as inadmissible for various reasons as set out in section 4 through 7 of the IRPA, including security reasons, human or international rights violations, serious criminality, criminality, organized criminality, health grounds and financial reasons. When determining whether the first five of these factors are applicable, an officer considers whether there are reasonable grounds to believe not only that they have occurred or are occurring, but also that they may occur. However, if the person can convince the Minister that his or her presence in Canada would not be detrimental to the national interest, then he or she will possibly be declared admissible. Once a person is found inadmissible, he or she cannot appeal the decision if the inadmissibility is based on security, violating human or international rights, serious criminality or organized criminality. Here, serious criminality is with respect to a crime punishable in Canada by a term of imprisonment of at least two years. As the Refugee Appeal Division has not yet come into force, appeals are handled by the Immigration Appeal Division. This division can allow an appeal if the decision was wrong in law, fact or both, if a principle of natural justice has not been observed, or if sufficient humanitarian and compassionate considerations warrant special relief in light of all the circumstances. The Immigration Appeal Division is then responsible for setting aside the original decision and substituting a decision in its place.

The Immigration and Refugee Board

Part IV of the IRPA creates the Immigration and Refugee Board ("IRB"). The IRB is Canadas largest independent administrative tribunal, whose purpose is to make reasoned decisions on immigration and refugee matters in an efficient and fair way and in accordance to the law. . The IRB is split into four divisions, the Refugee Protection Division ("RPD"), the Immigration Division ("ID"), the Refugee Appeal Division ("RAD"), and the Immigration Appeal Division ("IAD"). The RPD decides claims for refugee protection made by persons in Canada. Refugee protection claims made outside Canada are decided by Citizenship and Immigration Canada ("CIC"). The ID is responsible for conducting immigration admissibility hearings for certain categories of people believed to be inadmissible to, or removable from, Canada under the law and conducts detention reviews for those being detained under the IRPA. The IAD hears appeals of sponsorship applications refused by officials of Citizenship and Immigration Canada ("CIC"); appeals from certain removal orders made against permanent residents, refugees and other protected persons, and holders of permanent resident visas; and appeals by permanent residents who have been found outside of Canada not to have fulfilled their residency obligation; and appeals by CIC from decisions of the Immigration Division at admissibility hearings. The RAD has not yet come into force, however, its purpose is to decide appeals from decisions made by the Refugee Protection Division.

The Divisions follow a quasi-tribunal process designed to ensure fair, efficient, and consistent decisions in accordance with Canadian law and Canadas international obligations and humanitarian traditions. Some characteristics of the tribunal are

1. Individuals have the right to be heard and to present their cases fully.

. All testimony is given under oath or by affirmation

. Most cases are heard by one member, although occasionally in the Refugee Protection Division and Immigration Appeal Division, panels of three members will hear cases

4. Hearings concerning refugee claimants are generally held in private, while other hearings are usually open to the public. However, a member of the public may apply to attend a refugee hearing, and upon request, other hearings may be held in private. The guiding principle in all cases is whether there is a serious possibility that the life, liberty or security of a person would be endangered by holding the hearing in public

5. The setting and procedures for hearings are relatively informal and therefore, evidence presented and accepted is not restricted by technical or legal rules of evidence

6. Each division has rules of practice that set out more detailed requirements for procedures, time limits, disclosure of evidence, provision of documents, and other responsibilities of parties and counsel

7. All IRB decisions are based on the evidence provided during the proceedings

8. Members must provide reasons for all final decisions

. Both CIC and individuals appearing before the IRB have the right to apply to the Federal Court of Canada for judicial review of decisions rendered by one of the divisions of the IRB. They must first obtain leave (permission) of the Court.

The Chair person and members of these divisions are appointed by the Governor in Council for seven years subject to reappointment. At least 10% of the members must be members of at least five years standing at the bar of a province or notaries of at least five years standing at the Chambre des notaires du Quebec. They are not allowed to have any criminal or civil proceedings against them or allowed to appear as a witness in any civil proceedings. Each division has sole and exclusive jurisdiction to hear and determine all questions of law and fact, including questions of jurisdiction, and must handle all proceedings as informally and quickly as possible, while still abiding by the rules of natural justice. Matters are generally conducted before a single member, unless the Chairperson decides that a three-member panel is necessary.

Proceeding must be held in public unless the Division decides that it should be held in private due to a threat to life, liberty or security, a risk to fairness of the proceeding or a risk that matters involving public security will be disclosed.

Refugee Protection Division

As previously mentioned, the RPD decides claims for refugee protection made within Canada. In addition, it also makes decisions on applications filed by CIC regarding loss of refugee protection status. Canada's obligations toward the protection of refugees stems from several United Nations Conventions including the 151 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, the 166 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the 184 Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment.

Section 170 of the IRPA sets out the responsibilities of the Refugee Protection Division in the event of a proceeding. This Division

a) may inquire into any matter that it considers relevant to establishing whether a claim is well-founded;

b) must hold a hearing;

c) must notify the person who is the subject of the proceeding and the Minister of the hearing;

d) must provide the Minister, on request, with the documents and information which the claimant has submitted to prove that he or she is eligible to be referred to the Refugee Protection Division;

e) must give the person and the Minister a reasonable opportunity to present evidence, question witnesses and make representations;

f) may, despite paragraph (b), allow a claim for refugee protection without a hearing, if the Minister has not notified the Division, within the period set out in the rules of the Board, of the Ministers intention to intervene;

g) is not bound by any legal or technical rules of evidence;

h) may receive and base a decision on evidence that is adduced in the proceedings and considered credible or trustworthy in the circumstances; and

i) may take notice of any facts that may be judicially noticed, any other generally recognized facts and any information or opinion that is within its specialized knowledge.

When a person has completed a Personal Information Form, the claim can go either through an expedited process or a full hearing process. If the claim appears to be well founded, then it can go through the expedited process, whereby a refugee protection officer interviews the claimant and makes a recommendation regarding the claim. The claim is passed on to a member who decides whether it should b e accepted without a hearing, if the recommendation is favourable. If claimant is not granted refugee protection, a full hearing is held. A full hearing is typically non-adversarial, except when a CIC representative argues against the claim, and follows a general tribunal process. If the claim is accepted by the IRB, the claimant can apply to become a permanent resident; if the claim is not accepted, the claimant still has the opportunity to ask the Federal Court of Canada for leave to apply for judicial review. If leave to appeal is granted, the claim goes back to the RPD for a re-hearing.

Unsuccessful claimants may have other avenues of recourse at CIC including a pre-removal risk assessment.

Case Law

In Chiarelli v. __________, Sopinka J. discussed the constitutionality of the statutory scheme under which a permanent resident could be deported from Canada if he or she is found to have been convicted of an offence which may impose an imprisonment of five years or more. Chiarelli claimed that this provision attacked sections 7 and 1 of the Charter. Chiarelli received landed immigrant status in 175. In 184, he plead guilty to possessing narcotics for the purpose of trafficking, which carries a life imprisonment sentence and was sentenced to 6 months in jail. A deportation order was made against him pursuant to section () of the Immigration Act. This section provides that the adjudicator must make a deportation order against a person who has been convicted of an offence where an imprisonment term of five years or more has been imposed, unless the person is a Convention refugee. (what about persons in need of protection) An appeal hearing was adjourned after it was decided that there were reasonable grounds to believe that Chiarelli would engage in activity that was part of a pattern of organized crime. Sopinka J. found that this section was not a breach of fundamental justice. He stated that in order to determine the scope of fundamental principles as they applied to the case, the Court needed to look at the principles and policies underlying immigration law, the fundamental principle being that non-citizens do not have an unqualified right to enter and leave the country. The Charter itself draws a distinction between citizens and non-citizens. Under section 6(1) a Canadian citizen has the right to enter, remain in, or leave Canada, while section 6(), only gives permanent residents the right to move to, live in and gain a livelihood in any province. Sopinka J. suggested that the condition that non-citizens be deported when convicted of a crime is a legitimate response to a potential threat to public interest. He stated

…there is one element common to all persons who fall within the class of permanent residents described in s.7(1)(d)(ii). They have all deliberately violated an essential condition under which they were permitted to remain in Canada. In such a situation, there is not breach of fundamental justice in giving practical effect to the termination of their right to remain in Canada.

In Suresh v. _________, the claimant, classified as a Convention Refugee, appealed a decision that he be deported. Suresh was recognized as a Convention Refugee in 11 and applied for landed immigrant status. His application was denied based on security grounds and deportation proceedings commenced.

"The Minister [Elinor Caplan, Minister of Citizenship and Immigration] promised supporting regulations over the coming months, which will include a strengthened overseas refugee resettlement program, an expanded family class, new selection criteria to attract more highly skilled and adaptable independent immigrants, and the creation of an 'in-Canada' landing class for temporary workers, foreign students and spouses already established in Canada and wishing to stay."

The legislation intends to make the system work better for refugees by

1. Strengthening Refugee Protection Overseas Resettlement

What we are doing

• Amending the criteria for "ability to establish in Canada" to include social as well as economic factors.

• Pursuing agreements with NGOs to locate, identify, refer and pre-screen refugee applications in areas where refugees are most in need of protection

• Ensuring that people in urgent need of protection are brought to Canada within days

Why are we doing it

• To ensure that the need for protections is the overriding objective in resettlement from abroad

• To focus existing resources on areas where refugees are most in need of protection

. Facilitating Family Reunification of Refugees

. Faster and Fair Refugee Processing Inland

4. Front-end Security security check initiated when a person makes a refugee claim in order to catch criminals and people who present security risks at the start of the process and speed genuine refugees through the system

5. Admissibility Hearing

6. Pre-removal Risk Assessment

The legislation also intends to strengthen enforcement regarding refugees through

Penalties creating a new offence for people who misrepresent themselves

Exclusion from the Refugee Determination System barring access to serious criminals and people who present security risks in order to prevent abuse of the refugee protection system

Eliminating Appeals for serious criminals and people who present security risks in order to ensure that they can be removed without delay. Recourse of judicial review is still available with leave to by the Federal Court

Suspension of a Refugee Claim if he or she has been charged with a crime in order to prevent abuse of the system by people who come to Canada not because they need protection but because they intend to engage in crime(News Release 001)

Both the Act and the Regulations came into effect on June 8, 00. http//www.cic.gc.ca/english/irpa/news.html

Convention for Refugees (UN)A. For the purposes of the present Convention, the term refugee,, shall apply to any person who

(1) Has been considered a refugee under the Arrangements of 1 May 16 and 0 June 18 or under the Conventions of 8 October 1 and 10 February 18, the Protocol of 14 September 1 or the Constitution of the International Refugee Organization;

Decisions of non-eligibility taken by the International Refugee Organization during the period of its activities shall not prevent the status of refugee being accorded to persons who fulfil the conditions of paragraph of this section;

() As a result of events occurring before I January 151 and owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.

In the case of a person who has more than one nationality, the term the country of his nationality shall mean each of the countries of which he is a national, and a person shall not be deemed to be lacking the protection of the country of his nationality if, without any valid reason based on well-founded fear, he has not availed himself of the protection of one of the countries of which he is a national.

Who qualifies as a refugee?

According to the Article 1 (A) of United Nation's Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, which came into force on April , 154, a refugee is a person who, "owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it."

Sections E and F of Article 1 of this Convention state that the Convention does not apply to persons for whom there are serious reasons for believing that they have committed a crime against peace or humanity, a war crime, a serious not-political crime outside the country of refuge, or has been guilty of acts contrary to the purpose and principles of the United Nations

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Dissolute

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The tragedy at Columbine High School is a horrendous tragedy that will be remembered and talked about for years to come. But there are still a couple questions that meander through the depths of our mind. For instance who's to blame? The kids alone, the parents for how they brought the children up, or even actually the students at Columbine? Numerous interviews show that the parents are good, noble people who made a staunch effort in raising their children with beneficial morals and values. Although this horrific act of violence performed by these students is not fully their parent's fault, the parents of these students spend countless nights pondering how they went wrong in raising their child.

We live in a morally corrupt society. It is unfortunate to say that a child or adolescent's value system can be completely altered by a friend who has won his or her soul even in the short period of a single month. This peer eventually fills the void of belonging and acceptance both children and adolescent teens desperately yearn for, and the values implemented by his or her parents are totally relinquished. Because children and adolescents are extremely gullible and will do just about anything to fit in, parents continuously pray that they will choose they will spend their pastime with the right type of crowd.

Unfortunately there are some, such as the students who performed the shootings in Columbine High School, who fall into the wrong crowds of people. Students from Columbine have stated in interviews that the shooters were "loners" who had trouble being accepted by others in their high school. Although this is a challenge that most teens face in their adolescent years, these students who performed the shootings took their animosities to a maleficent extent. Dylan Klebold, 17, and his shooting partner, Eric Harris, 18 have evoked the passion and outrage in one another which allowed them to conspire against their fellow classmates whom they felt has made their high school experience dreadful. Eventually, the boys realized they could not live a life of remorse and feared to live up to the consequences of their wrongdoings; following their shooting spree, they took the lives of their own.

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Discuss the evidence showing that the two types of plant-microbe symbiosis, nitrogen-fixing root nodule development and arbuscular mycorrhiza formation, are controlled by common genetic determinates in the host plant.

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Abstract

Leguminous plant roots form endosymbioses with both bacteria and fungi forming nitrogen-fixing root nodules and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), respectively. The physiological outcomes of both symbioses are quite dissimilar, however, several studies have shown that nodulation defective mutant are often defective in arbuscular mycorrhiza formation, this is indicative of a common genetic overlap in perception of endosymbiosis signals in the host. Analysis has shown several genes to integral to this common system. Study of common phenotypic markers, such as calcium spiking and early nodulation gene expression, has helped to order the action of the common symbiosis genes. The recent cloning of a novel receptor like-kinase has confirmed its role in transduction of both bacterial and fungal symbiotic signals. The evolutionary history of AM-host interactions dates back ~450 MYA, and it is thought the more recent rhizobia-legume interaction may have evolved by recruiting plant factors originally used for AM perception and formation.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is an intracellular plant-fungal symbiosis, leading to a greatly improved uptake of phosphate from the soil, formed between most land plants and the zygomycete fungi belonging in the order of Glomales (Brundrett, 00). Flavonoid exudates from the root hairs of the host plants cause an increase in AM fungal hyphae (Nair et al., 11). The direct contact of these hyphae with root hair epidermis stimulates the formation of an appressoria, a highly branched network of swollen hypea. These fungi grow towards the cortex of the roots upon which they differentiate into specialised branched structures known as arbusculars. The dense network of branches provides the large surface area for ion uptake (for review see Smith and Smith, 17). Fossil records show AM-like interactions in early land plants ~450MYA (Remy, 14), however, intercellular bacterial root nodulation is not detected until much later (Herendeen, 1). Root nodule symbioses are formed between leguminous plants of the Eurosid I clade and a unique diverse group of bacteria called rhizobia. The Rhizobial detection of plant flavonoids induces the release of nodulation factors (NF), symbiotic signalling compounds identified as lipochitin oligosaccharides. The basic backbone of all NFs is B�1,4-linked N-acyl-D-glucosamine four or five units in length, which can be modified at the terminal sugar residue or within the acyl chain (Perret, 000). Species-specific modifications provide rhizobia with a narrow host range e.g. Sinorhizobium Meliloti can nodulate species of Medicago, Melilotus, and Trigonella; Mesorhizobium loti can nodulate species of lotus and Lupinus; Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciac can form nodulate species of pea (Pisum sativum), Vicia, Lens, and Lathyrus; and Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii can nodulate species of clover (Trifolium), however there are exceptions, Rhizobium strain NGR4 was shown to nodulate species of legume and can even nodulate the non-legume Parasponia andersonii (Perret et al., 000; Pueppke and Broughton, 1). Mutational studies into NF production have been shown to alter host specificity and are taken as evidence that plants discriminate between Rhizobia by recognition of their NFs (Perret et al., 000). NF signalling molecules induce several accommodating changes in the host. NF detection causes root hair deformation (swelling and branching), membrane depolarisation, extracellular alkalinisation, followed by curling of the root tip and an entrapment of the bacteria (Wegel et al, 18). Entrapment allows the formation of an infection thread, a host controlled inward growing tubular structure, which descends to the root hair cortex (Albrecht et al., 1). Clusters of cortical cells differentiate to from a primordial nodule, which is subsequently infected by bacteria released from the infection thread. The infected nodule provides the ideal environment to reduce nitrogen into ammonia for uptake by the host. Whilst NFs have been shown to act as signal molecules between the rhizobia and host the equivalent signal molecule between AM and host has not yet been discovered.

At first glance the two intracellular interactions of AM and rhizobia would appear quite different, both inducing different physiological responses in either a promiscuous or species-specific manner. However, studies on model organisms, Lotus japonicus and Medicago truncatula, show that nodulation defective mutants (Nod�) are often coupled with the inability to form mycorrhizal association (Myc�)(Harrison, 17). In 1 of 45 NodW mutants of pea and vetch, diallelic crosses have shown that MycW and NodW cannot be uncoupled, demonstrating that both phenotypes are derived from mutations in the same gene, and suggest a common pathway for the two symbioses (Harrison, 17). This convergence of the two associations has been subject to intense study as it suggests that nodule symbiosis may have arisen in part by the hijacking of genes used for the ancient AM symbiosis.

Order College Papers on Discuss the evidence showing that the two types of plant-microbe symbiosis, nitrogen-fixing root nodule development and arbuscular mycorrhiza formation, are controlled by common genetic determinates in the host plant.

Symbiotic signalling, a convergence system

Genetic study of Myc�/Nod� mutants has identified several genes essential to both fungal and bacterial endosymbioses, these are referred to as SYM genes. These genes include MtDMI1, MtDMI, and MtDMI from M. truncatula; PsSym8, PsSym, PsSym1, and PsSym0 from pea (P. sativum); LjSYM, LjSYM, LjSYM4, LjSYM15, LjSYM, and LjSYM0 from L. japonicus; and MaSYM1, MaSYM, MsSYM5 from Melilotus alba (Hirsch et al., 001). Genetic analysis of the pea nodulation mutant Sparkle-R5, which is mutated in PsSYM8, show PsSYM8 to be essential in inducing PsENOD5 and PsENOD1A, both are early nodulin genes required for microbe symbiosis (Albrecht et al., 18). PsSym and PsSym0 have also been shown to be vital for root branching deformation (Walker et al., 000). Study of M. truncatula mutants in three genes MtDMI1, MtDMI, and MtDMI demonstrate their role in inducing early nodulation genes and root hair deformation in response to both AM fungal and NF inoculation (Catoira et al, 000). These studies indicate that SYM genes are involved in perception and transduction of AM fungal factor and rhizobia nodulation factor (NF) signals

Several common genes induced during both symbioses interactions have been identified, expressed in the epidermis, cortex, and pericycle of the root; ENOD, ENOD5, ENOD11, ENOD1, ENOD40, and rip1, are all activated upon treatment of NF onto L. japonicus roots and infection by AM fungi, these genes are termed the early nodulin genes (Albrecht et al., 18; Van Rhijn et al., 17). Furthermore the leghaemoglobin (LB) gene is activated with 4 to 48 hours of incubation with AM or Nod. LB is thought to be an oxygen buffer in the infection zone, however no oxygen restriction is detected in AM so LB may play an additional role (Strake et a., 00). One of the earliest known responses to signalling in symbiosis is the establishment of regular periodic calcium spikes. Addition of NF from R. leguminosarum bv. viciac onto pea root hair induced an increase of calcium within 1- minutes, followed 10 minutes later by periodic spikes in calcium of ~00nM every minute (Ehrhardt et al., 16). Very little is known about the role of calcium spiking in plants but it's detection early in both AM infection and NF inoculation have placed it early in the common signalling leading to endosymbiotic infection, this combined with expression studies on early nodulin genes has helped to develop a pecking order into the action of the SYM genes.

Genetic hierarchy of SYM signalling

Mutations in several SYM genes, LjSYM, LjSYM4 from L. japonicus, MtDMI1, MtDMI from M. truncatula, PsSYM8, PsSYM1 from pea, MsNORK from Medicago sativa, are all Myc�/Nod� and all abolish calcium spiking in presence of NF or AM inoculation, and as a result these genes are placed upstream of this earliest known common response. However, plant lines possessing mutations in these SYM genes still display root swelling in response to NFs (Catoira et al, 000; Stracke et al., 00). Taken at face value, this indicates the common pathway to endosymbiotic infection is independent from pathways leading to NF induced root hair swelling (Fig. 1)

The recent cloning of one of the SYM genes has greatly added our knowledge of the overall pathway of symbiotic signalling. Two institutions simultaneously published papers describing the cloning of two orthologus receptor-like kinase genes essential in the microbial signal pathway, the nodulation receptor kinase (NORK) gene of M. sativa (Endre et al., 00) and the symbiosis receptor-like kinase (SYMRK) gene of L. japonicus (Stacke et al., 00). NORK and SYMRK are highly homologous, both are closely linked to the SHMT marker genes, and both have similar phenotypes, for these reasons NORK and SYMRK where are said to be orthologus. Analysis of SYMRK/NORK genes, in several Myc�/ Nod� mutants, confirmed that mutations in were responsible for the defective phenotypes. Mutations in SYMRK/NORK confer Myc�/ Nod� phenotypes defective in calcium spiking, membrane depolarisation, and extracellular alkalinisation placing then upstream of the earliest detectable response to symbiosis signals. To further clarify the position of the SYMRK gene within the symbiosis-signalling pathway the expression pattern of the symbiosis activated gene LB was observed, unlike wild type, SYMRK mutants didn't induce LB in response to NFs confirming SYMRK role in early signal transduction. The pea line p55, mutated in PsSYM1, has a similar phenotype the NORK/SYMRK mutant, PsSYM1 is highly homologues to NORK/SYMRK at the protein level, and is also linked within 8kb to the SHMT marker genes, these observation led to the conclusion that PsSYM1 and NORK/SYMRK are orthologus genes (Stacke et al., 00). Similar studies have identified other possible NORK/SYMRK orthologus in M. truncatula (MtDM1), M. alba, P. sativum, and Vicia hirsute. Hybridisation of the NORK gene with southern blots of total genomic DNA of several legumes produced bands in thirteen different genera of legume, strongly indicating the conserved presence of NORK homologues in nodulating plants (Endre et al., 00). The protein structure of NORK/SYMRK has all the hallmarks of a receptor-like kinase, possessing a signal peptide, an extracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, and an intracellular protein kinase domain. Three extracellular leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) are found in the extracellular domain. The structure of NORK/SYMRK suggests a role in the detection and translocation of a ligand signal leading to calcium spiking. However, several additional genes have been shown to be required for calcium spiking PsSYM8 from pea (Walker et al., 00), LjSYM4 in L. japonicus, and MtDMI1 in M. truncatula (Wais et al., 000), mutations in all three of these genes confer a Myc�/Nod� phenotype. The orthologus relationship between these genes has not been established. It's possible that these additional SYM genes interact with NORK/SYMRK curtsey of their leucine-rich repeats although this has little evidence.

The MtDMI mutant is interesting in that it's phenotypically identical to the MtDMI1 and MtDMI mutants in all respects except calcium spiking (Catoira et al., 000), MtDMI mutants are able to induce calcium spiking in response to microbial signals. If calcium spiking is a component in the direct signal transduction chain for NF signaling, then the position of DMI would be downstream of calcium spiking, potentially consistent with a gene product involved in transduction of the calcium-spiking signal to downstream targets. Three other mutations have been reported which are phenotypically similar to MtDMI, they are PsSYM, PsSYM0, and LjSym0 (Walker et al., 000). As a result all four of these genes are placed downstream of calcium spiking (fig 1).

Further additions to the signalling pathway can be made studying Myc+/Nod� mutants, LjSYM1, LjSYM5, PsSYM10, these mutants are able to form AM symbiosis but are defective in nodulation, failing to induce calcium spiking and root hair deformation in response to NF (Stougaard, 001). This suggests these mutants are affected upstream of the SYM genes, and may be acting as NF binding proteins. Interestingly these mutations show no morphological deformation response to NFs, yet, as mentioned, mutations in the common SYM genes MtDMI1, MtDMI, MtDMI, LjSYMRK, and LjSym4 all show a root hair swelling response without root hair branching, suggesting that they are still able to partially detect and respond to NFs. This indicates independent pathways for two aspects of NF induced root deformation, root hair branching being downstream of the SYM genes, and root hair swelling being upstream and independent of the SYM genes yet downstream of the hypothetical NF binding proteins (Fig 1). It's quite possible that these NF binding proteins can interact with NORK/SYMRK via the leucine rich region, to induce calcium spiking, and also interact with an a yet undiscovered signalling protein to induce root hair swelling.

Fig 1. The common signalling pathway of leguminous plant genes during endosymbiotic infection. The bacteria nodulation factors (NFs) are shown entering the signal pathway at the extreme left, the mycorrhizal fungi signalling molecule is as yet unknown. Sym genes are shown in blue boxes, genes specific for NF recognition are shown in red boxes. Mutations in NF binding protein genes, LjSYM1, LjSYM5, and PsSYM10, confer a non-nodulating phenotype but retain the ability to form AM, they are defective in both NF induced root hair swelling and calcium spiking, these observations place these gene upstream of the SYM genes. Mutations in any of the SYM genes confer Myc�/Nod� phenotype. The NORK/SMYRK is shown in a dashed box, along with its proposed orthologs in pea and L. japonicus, mutations in these genes are shown to act upstream, along with LjSYM4, MtDMI1, and PsSYM8, of calcium spiking, unlike LjSYM0, MtDMI, PsSym0, and PsSym, which are shown downstream. Root hair branching and root hair swelling are shown on different pathways as several mutants in the SYM genes respond with normal root hair swelling upon NF inoculation yet swelling is absent in NF binding protein mutants. The formation of infection threads cannot proceed without bacterial presence and therefore additional factors must play a role in this, these factors are marked as "?". It was shown that a diffusible AM fungal factor induced MtENOD11 expression, and this induction was independent of the common SYM, it's possible that this factor is the fungal equivalent to the bacterial Nod factors, and that ENOD induction branches away from the SYM cascade after a common fungal factor binding protein perception mechanism (shown as path a ). It's also possible that the AM fungal factor is perceived independently, and serves only to activate expression of the ENOD genes (shown as path b ), SYM8 has been shown to be essential for induction of ENOD1 and ENOD5 in both symbioses suggesting that it's interacting in the pathway leading to ENOD induction as well as the pathway leading to calcium spiking. This figure is adapted from Hirsch et al., 001

It's also possible to obtain Nod� mutants which show wild type root deformation, for both swelling and branching, yet are unable to initiate infection thread or induce early nodulation genes. Transposon tagging of these mutant in L. japonicus identified the gene LjNIN (Schauser et al., 1), which encodes a transcription factor to induce ENOD genes in rhizobial infection. Homologus genes have been identified in pea, psSYM7, and M. truncatula, MtNSP. Interestingly several of the same ENOD genes expressed downstream of NIN (ENOD11, ENOD40, and RIP1) are also expressed in AM infection (Albrecht et al., 18; Van Rhijn et al., 17). Recent experiments using pMtENOD11-gusA reporter gene proved that AM infection induces expression of pMtENOD11-gusA even in Medicago truncatula lines possessing SYM mutations (MtDMI1, MtDMI, MtDMI)(Kostu et al., 0). Furthermore, the it was shown that several membrane separations of the AM fungi and root hair were not sufficient to reduce this pMtENOD11-gusA expression, indicating that the fungi produce a diffusible compound which is responsible for MtENOD11 activation. These observations imply that the pathway leading to MtENOD11 induction, by the diffusible AM fungal factor, is separate from the Nod-dependant induction of MtENOD11 in rhizobial symbiosis and separate from the common SYM cascade and calcium spking (This independent path is shown on fig 1). It's possible that this diffusible fungal factor is the predicted AM signalling molecule, proposed to provide signalling from fungi to plant to activate the common SYM signal cascade in a similar way to NF, this suggests that the SYM cascade and MtENOD11 expression pathways branch from a common AM fungal factor binding protein early in signal transduction ( a in fig 1), it's also possible that the AM fungal factor acts solely on the pathway leading to MtENOD induction, whereas a different fungal factor may be the anticipated AM signalling molecule ( b in fig 1). Further tests are required to distinguish between the two possibilities. However, it has also been shown that induction of PsENOD1 and PsENOD5 in both symbioses is absent in PsSYM8 mutants (see above), this indicates sym8 is common to both ENOD pathways and is added to fig 1.

The discovery of the sym genes has important implications. If one accepts that the mechanisms of AM and rhizobia infection converge, it implies that aspects of these mechanisms should be wide spread throughout plants that undergo either of the two symbioses. In keeping with this idea it was shown that rice were able to perceive the presence of NFs (Reddy et al., 1). A Medicago ENOD1 promoter�GUS complex was introduced into the non-legume rice plant. The addition of S. Meliloti NFs to the transgenic plant resulted in increased levels of GUS reporter gene expression, however the addition of chitooligosaccharide backbone molecules didn't induce ENOD1�GUS expression. Taken at face value these finding suggest a mechanism by which rice can specifically perceive NFs and respond. Whilst it's obvious that a complete perception is not present, it's still an interesting finding and may have significance in attempts to create transgenic legumes capable of benefiting from nodulation.

It's also noted, that infection thread formation cannot occur in the absence of bacteria and therefore additional bacterial factors must come into play downstream of ENOD gene activation, the exact mechanism of this is not understood and is shown as "?" on fig 1.

Gene hijacking in rhizobia evolution.

The convergence of signalling between AM infection and rhizobial nodulation, as well as the fact that several early nodulin (ENOD) genes are expressed in both symbiosis, has led to the suggestion that rhizobia�plant symbiosis may have arisen from the much older AM�plant interaction. Several bacteria exist that posses the ability to reduce nitrogen, and if these bacteria were equipped with the ability to infect a plant root hair it's seems quite possible that this could lead to bacterial endosymbiosis. This of course leads to the question of how ancestral bacteria acquired the infection ability. Study of the nodABC genes in Rhizobiaceae, genes encoding products in the pathway to NF production, suggests they are of external origin (Hirsch et al., 001), their G + C content is below average, and codon usage is different from most chromosomal genes. In addition, the chitin molecule product of the nod genes is quite unlike anything made by conventional bacteria, bacteria do not often posses chitin structures in their cell walls unlike fungi. NodC is an N-acetyl-glucosaminyl transferase that produces a chitin backbone, NodB removes an acetyl group from the terminal residue of the chitin oligomer, and NodA catalyses the transfer of a fatty acid chain onto the free amino group resulting from NodB. The action of NodA is very intriguing as there are few bacterial proteins known possessing such a mode of action, NodA like proteins have only been found in rhizobia and their source is a mystery. However, NodC protein is similar to several fungal chitin synthases, suggesting rhizobia may have acquired these genes from an ancestral fungus. This idea partially explains the genetic overlap of the perception of these genes in legumes.

It's possible that the diffusible factor discovered by Kostu and colleagues (Kostu et al.,00) may represent the fungal signalling factor and further tests may prove or disprove this. The identification of said factors may help improve our understanding of the overall evolution of nodulation.

Where are we now and where are we going?

It's clear that multiple genes are involved in both endosymbiotic interactions, and several of these genes overlap in function. The convergence of signalling mechanisms between the two-endosymbiotic symbioses offer prospect in the production of GM crop. Utilisation of the rich nitrogen provided by rhizobial interaction would greatly reduce the amounts of fertiliser required in agricultural farming. Further study of the SYM genes in model organisms will help advance of understanding, but it's worth noting that model organism do not represent all species and further study on a species by species basis may be needed before agriculture can take advantage of bacterial symbiosis. The cloning of NORK/SYMRK has provided a surge of knowledge and interest into these species, further cloning of SYM genes should be equally as intriguing, and genome sequencing projects of L.japonicus and M.truncatula should facilitate this process. It's apparent that there is a considerable amount of cross talking between pathways an example is the possible presence of sym8 in multiple pathways; this cross talk may cause constructing an overall model difficult. Arguments into the evolution of rhizobia are ongoing and whilst it's possible that these genes originated from fungal origin, it's also possible they stemmed from a bacterial source that has yet to be sequenced.

Word Count 6

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Richmond

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Tel +44 (0) 0 840 1171

Tel +44 (0) 0 8 5610

E-mail info@kew.org

Web www.rbgkew.org.uk

Kew Gardens is often referred to as the Royal Botanic Gardens.

Three hundred acres containing collections of over 40,000 varieties of plants. Also seven glasshouses and two art galleries, Japanese and rock garden etc...

Between March and November one-hour tours start daily at 11.00am and .00pm. A more limited service is run during the winter (normally at pm only but call +44 (0)181 56 during office hours to check, or E-mail tours@kew.org

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PAKISTAN AND THE UN

Like all developing countries, Pakistan requires cash and resources to develop. The UN, the World Bank and the IMF, has had a major role in the structuring of Pakistan's economy.

0% of the World Banks lending to Pakistan since 185 has been used for agriculture and for irrigation. The largest portion of this aid has been given to the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan, which provides loans for agricultural activities. The next important allocation has been for research and extension. The World Bank has also provided loans for dairy farming and development of edible oil crops.

The World Bank has been involved in developing Pakistan's irrigation system. In 160, it helped to negotiate the Indus Basin Water Treaty between India and Pakistan, providing for the Tarbela Dam. In 175, the World Bank drew up a plan to improve the irrigation system in collaboration with the Pakistan government. It has been proposed that water charges be levied according to the amount of water used by the farmer. Presently, water supply and charges are independent of each other, so there is no incentive to use water efficiently.

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A number of studies have been made to assess energy reserves, to identify problems and to upgrade the power transmission and distribution system. The World Bank is also assisting Pakistan through a search for better energy policies.

The World Bank provides loans to lay gas pipelines from Sui to consumption centers.

The Pakistan Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation (PICIC) has received the bulk of loans. The World Bank has also lent directly to the industry, e.g., three fertilizer plants, a refinery engineering loan and credit for the Small Scale Sector have been funded.

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