Discuss the evidence showing that the two types of plant-microbe symbiosis, nitrogen-fixing root nodule development and arbuscular mycorrhiza formation, are controlled by common genetic determinates in the host plant.

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Abstract

Leguminous plant roots form endosymbioses with both bacteria and fungi forming nitrogen-fixing root nodules and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), respectively. The physiological outcomes of both symbioses are quite dissimilar, however, several studies have shown that nodulation defective mutant are often defective in arbuscular mycorrhiza formation, this is indicative of a common genetic overlap in perception of endosymbiosis signals in the host. Analysis has shown several genes to integral to this common system. Study of common phenotypic markers, such as calcium spiking and early nodulation gene expression, has helped to order the action of the common symbiosis genes. The recent cloning of a novel receptor like-kinase has confirmed its role in transduction of both bacterial and fungal symbiotic signals. The evolutionary history of AM-host interactions dates back ~450 MYA, and it is thought the more recent rhizobia-legume interaction may have evolved by recruiting plant factors originally used for AM perception and formation.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is an intracellular plant-fungal symbiosis, leading to a greatly improved uptake of phosphate from the soil, formed between most land plants and the zygomycete fungi belonging in the order of Glomales (Brundrett, 00). Flavonoid exudates from the root hairs of the host plants cause an increase in AM fungal hyphae (Nair et al., 11). The direct contact of these hyphae with root hair epidermis stimulates the formation of an appressoria, a highly branched network of swollen hypea. These fungi grow towards the cortex of the roots upon which they differentiate into specialised branched structures known as arbusculars. The dense network of branches provides the large surface area for ion uptake (for review see Smith and Smith, 17). Fossil records show AM-like interactions in early land plants ~450MYA (Remy, 14), however, intercellular bacterial root nodulation is not detected until much later (Herendeen, 1). Root nodule symbioses are formed between leguminous plants of the Eurosid I clade and a unique diverse group of bacteria called rhizobia. The Rhizobial detection of plant flavonoids induces the release of nodulation factors (NF), symbiotic signalling compounds identified as lipochitin oligosaccharides. The basic backbone of all NFs is B�1,4-linked N-acyl-D-glucosamine four or five units in length, which can be modified at the terminal sugar residue or within the acyl chain (Perret, 000). Species-specific modifications provide rhizobia with a narrow host range e.g. Sinorhizobium Meliloti can nodulate species of Medicago, Melilotus, and Trigonella; Mesorhizobium loti can nodulate species of lotus and Lupinus; Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciac can form nodulate species of pea (Pisum sativum), Vicia, Lens, and Lathyrus; and Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii can nodulate species of clover (Trifolium), however there are exceptions, Rhizobium strain NGR4 was shown to nodulate species of legume and can even nodulate the non-legume Parasponia andersonii (Perret et al., 000; Pueppke and Broughton, 1). Mutational studies into NF production have been shown to alter host specificity and are taken as evidence that plants discriminate between Rhizobia by recognition of their NFs (Perret et al., 000). NF signalling molecules induce several accommodating changes in the host. NF detection causes root hair deformation (swelling and branching), membrane depolarisation, extracellular alkalinisation, followed by curling of the root tip and an entrapment of the bacteria (Wegel et al, 18). Entrapment allows the formation of an infection thread, a host controlled inward growing tubular structure, which descends to the root hair cortex (Albrecht et al., 1). Clusters of cortical cells differentiate to from a primordial nodule, which is subsequently infected by bacteria released from the infection thread. The infected nodule provides the ideal environment to reduce nitrogen into ammonia for uptake by the host. Whilst NFs have been shown to act as signal molecules between the rhizobia and host the equivalent signal molecule between AM and host has not yet been discovered.

At first glance the two intracellular interactions of AM and rhizobia would appear quite different, both inducing different physiological responses in either a promiscuous or species-specific manner. However, studies on model organisms, Lotus japonicus and Medicago truncatula, show that nodulation defective mutants (Nod�) are often coupled with the inability to form mycorrhizal association (Myc�)(Harrison, 17). In 1 of 45 NodW mutants of pea and vetch, diallelic crosses have shown that MycW and NodW cannot be uncoupled, demonstrating that both phenotypes are derived from mutations in the same gene, and suggest a common pathway for the two symbioses (Harrison, 17). This convergence of the two associations has been subject to intense study as it suggests that nodule symbiosis may have arisen in part by the hijacking of genes used for the ancient AM symbiosis.

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Symbiotic signalling, a convergence system

Genetic study of Myc�/Nod� mutants has identified several genes essential to both fungal and bacterial endosymbioses, these are referred to as SYM genes. These genes include MtDMI1, MtDMI, and MtDMI from M. truncatula; PsSym8, PsSym, PsSym1, and PsSym0 from pea (P. sativum); LjSYM, LjSYM, LjSYM4, LjSYM15, LjSYM, and LjSYM0 from L. japonicus; and MaSYM1, MaSYM, MsSYM5 from Melilotus alba (Hirsch et al., 001). Genetic analysis of the pea nodulation mutant Sparkle-R5, which is mutated in PsSYM8, show PsSYM8 to be essential in inducing PsENOD5 and PsENOD1A, both are early nodulin genes required for microbe symbiosis (Albrecht et al., 18). PsSym and PsSym0 have also been shown to be vital for root branching deformation (Walker et al., 000). Study of M. truncatula mutants in three genes MtDMI1, MtDMI, and MtDMI demonstrate their role in inducing early nodulation genes and root hair deformation in response to both AM fungal and NF inoculation (Catoira et al, 000). These studies indicate that SYM genes are involved in perception and transduction of AM fungal factor and rhizobia nodulation factor (NF) signals

Several common genes induced during both symbioses interactions have been identified, expressed in the epidermis, cortex, and pericycle of the root; ENOD, ENOD5, ENOD11, ENOD1, ENOD40, and rip1, are all activated upon treatment of NF onto L. japonicus roots and infection by AM fungi, these genes are termed the early nodulin genes (Albrecht et al., 18; Van Rhijn et al., 17). Furthermore the leghaemoglobin (LB) gene is activated with 4 to 48 hours of incubation with AM or Nod. LB is thought to be an oxygen buffer in the infection zone, however no oxygen restriction is detected in AM so LB may play an additional role (Strake et a., 00). One of the earliest known responses to signalling in symbiosis is the establishment of regular periodic calcium spikes. Addition of NF from R. leguminosarum bv. viciac onto pea root hair induced an increase of calcium within 1- minutes, followed 10 minutes later by periodic spikes in calcium of ~00nM every minute (Ehrhardt et al., 16). Very little is known about the role of calcium spiking in plants but it's detection early in both AM infection and NF inoculation have placed it early in the common signalling leading to endosymbiotic infection, this combined with expression studies on early nodulin genes has helped to develop a pecking order into the action of the SYM genes.

Genetic hierarchy of SYM signalling

Mutations in several SYM genes, LjSYM, LjSYM4 from L. japonicus, MtDMI1, MtDMI from M. truncatula, PsSYM8, PsSYM1 from pea, MsNORK from Medicago sativa, are all Myc�/Nod� and all abolish calcium spiking in presence of NF or AM inoculation, and as a result these genes are placed upstream of this earliest known common response. However, plant lines possessing mutations in these SYM genes still display root swelling in response to NFs (Catoira et al, 000; Stracke et al., 00). Taken at face value, this indicates the common pathway to endosymbiotic infection is independent from pathways leading to NF induced root hair swelling (Fig. 1)

The recent cloning of one of the SYM genes has greatly added our knowledge of the overall pathway of symbiotic signalling. Two institutions simultaneously published papers describing the cloning of two orthologus receptor-like kinase genes essential in the microbial signal pathway, the nodulation receptor kinase (NORK) gene of M. sativa (Endre et al., 00) and the symbiosis receptor-like kinase (SYMRK) gene of L. japonicus (Stacke et al., 00). NORK and SYMRK are highly homologous, both are closely linked to the SHMT marker genes, and both have similar phenotypes, for these reasons NORK and SYMRK where are said to be orthologus. Analysis of SYMRK/NORK genes, in several Myc�/ Nod� mutants, confirmed that mutations in were responsible for the defective phenotypes. Mutations in SYMRK/NORK confer Myc�/ Nod� phenotypes defective in calcium spiking, membrane depolarisation, and extracellular alkalinisation placing then upstream of the earliest detectable response to symbiosis signals. To further clarify the position of the SYMRK gene within the symbiosis-signalling pathway the expression pattern of the symbiosis activated gene LB was observed, unlike wild type, SYMRK mutants didn't induce LB in response to NFs confirming SYMRK role in early signal transduction. The pea line p55, mutated in PsSYM1, has a similar phenotype the NORK/SYMRK mutant, PsSYM1 is highly homologues to NORK/SYMRK at the protein level, and is also linked within 8kb to the SHMT marker genes, these observation led to the conclusion that PsSYM1 and NORK/SYMRK are orthologus genes (Stacke et al., 00). Similar studies have identified other possible NORK/SYMRK orthologus in M. truncatula (MtDM1), M. alba, P. sativum, and Vicia hirsute. Hybridisation of the NORK gene with southern blots of total genomic DNA of several legumes produced bands in thirteen different genera of legume, strongly indicating the conserved presence of NORK homologues in nodulating plants (Endre et al., 00). The protein structure of NORK/SYMRK has all the hallmarks of a receptor-like kinase, possessing a signal peptide, an extracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, and an intracellular protein kinase domain. Three extracellular leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) are found in the extracellular domain. The structure of NORK/SYMRK suggests a role in the detection and translocation of a ligand signal leading to calcium spiking. However, several additional genes have been shown to be required for calcium spiking PsSYM8 from pea (Walker et al., 00), LjSYM4 in L. japonicus, and MtDMI1 in M. truncatula (Wais et al., 000), mutations in all three of these genes confer a Myc�/Nod� phenotype. The orthologus relationship between these genes has not been established. It's possible that these additional SYM genes interact with NORK/SYMRK curtsey of their leucine-rich repeats although this has little evidence.

The MtDMI mutant is interesting in that it's phenotypically identical to the MtDMI1 and MtDMI mutants in all respects except calcium spiking (Catoira et al., 000), MtDMI mutants are able to induce calcium spiking in response to microbial signals. If calcium spiking is a component in the direct signal transduction chain for NF signaling, then the position of DMI would be downstream of calcium spiking, potentially consistent with a gene product involved in transduction of the calcium-spiking signal to downstream targets. Three other mutations have been reported which are phenotypically similar to MtDMI, they are PsSYM, PsSYM0, and LjSym0 (Walker et al., 000). As a result all four of these genes are placed downstream of calcium spiking (fig 1).

Further additions to the signalling pathway can be made studying Myc+/Nod� mutants, LjSYM1, LjSYM5, PsSYM10, these mutants are able to form AM symbiosis but are defective in nodulation, failing to induce calcium spiking and root hair deformation in response to NF (Stougaard, 001). This suggests these mutants are affected upstream of the SYM genes, and may be acting as NF binding proteins. Interestingly these mutations show no morphological deformation response to NFs, yet, as mentioned, mutations in the common SYM genes MtDMI1, MtDMI, MtDMI, LjSYMRK, and LjSym4 all show a root hair swelling response without root hair branching, suggesting that they are still able to partially detect and respond to NFs. This indicates independent pathways for two aspects of NF induced root deformation, root hair branching being downstream of the SYM genes, and root hair swelling being upstream and independent of the SYM genes yet downstream of the hypothetical NF binding proteins (Fig 1). It's quite possible that these NF binding proteins can interact with NORK/SYMRK via the leucine rich region, to induce calcium spiking, and also interact with an a yet undiscovered signalling protein to induce root hair swelling.

Fig 1. The common signalling pathway of leguminous plant genes during endosymbiotic infection. The bacteria nodulation factors (NFs) are shown entering the signal pathway at the extreme left, the mycorrhizal fungi signalling molecule is as yet unknown. Sym genes are shown in blue boxes, genes specific for NF recognition are shown in red boxes. Mutations in NF binding protein genes, LjSYM1, LjSYM5, and PsSYM10, confer a non-nodulating phenotype but retain the ability to form AM, they are defective in both NF induced root hair swelling and calcium spiking, these observations place these gene upstream of the SYM genes. Mutations in any of the SYM genes confer Myc�/Nod� phenotype. The NORK/SMYRK is shown in a dashed box, along with its proposed orthologs in pea and L. japonicus, mutations in these genes are shown to act upstream, along with LjSYM4, MtDMI1, and PsSYM8, of calcium spiking, unlike LjSYM0, MtDMI, PsSym0, and PsSym, which are shown downstream. Root hair branching and root hair swelling are shown on different pathways as several mutants in the SYM genes respond with normal root hair swelling upon NF inoculation yet swelling is absent in NF binding protein mutants. The formation of infection threads cannot proceed without bacterial presence and therefore additional factors must play a role in this, these factors are marked as "?". It was shown that a diffusible AM fungal factor induced MtENOD11 expression, and this induction was independent of the common SYM, it's possible that this factor is the fungal equivalent to the bacterial Nod factors, and that ENOD induction branches away from the SYM cascade after a common fungal factor binding protein perception mechanism (shown as path a ). It's also possible that the AM fungal factor is perceived independently, and serves only to activate expression of the ENOD genes (shown as path b ), SYM8 has been shown to be essential for induction of ENOD1 and ENOD5 in both symbioses suggesting that it's interacting in the pathway leading to ENOD induction as well as the pathway leading to calcium spiking. This figure is adapted from Hirsch et al., 001

It's also possible to obtain Nod� mutants which show wild type root deformation, for both swelling and branching, yet are unable to initiate infection thread or induce early nodulation genes. Transposon tagging of these mutant in L. japonicus identified the gene LjNIN (Schauser et al., 1), which encodes a transcription factor to induce ENOD genes in rhizobial infection. Homologus genes have been identified in pea, psSYM7, and M. truncatula, MtNSP. Interestingly several of the same ENOD genes expressed downstream of NIN (ENOD11, ENOD40, and RIP1) are also expressed in AM infection (Albrecht et al., 18; Van Rhijn et al., 17). Recent experiments using pMtENOD11-gusA reporter gene proved that AM infection induces expression of pMtENOD11-gusA even in Medicago truncatula lines possessing SYM mutations (MtDMI1, MtDMI, MtDMI)(Kostu et al., 0). Furthermore, the it was shown that several membrane separations of the AM fungi and root hair were not sufficient to reduce this pMtENOD11-gusA expression, indicating that the fungi produce a diffusible compound which is responsible for MtENOD11 activation. These observations imply that the pathway leading to MtENOD11 induction, by the diffusible AM fungal factor, is separate from the Nod-dependant induction of MtENOD11 in rhizobial symbiosis and separate from the common SYM cascade and calcium spking (This independent path is shown on fig 1). It's possible that this diffusible fungal factor is the predicted AM signalling molecule, proposed to provide signalling from fungi to plant to activate the common SYM signal cascade in a similar way to NF, this suggests that the SYM cascade and MtENOD11 expression pathways branch from a common AM fungal factor binding protein early in signal transduction ( a in fig 1), it's also possible that the AM fungal factor acts solely on the pathway leading to MtENOD induction, whereas a different fungal factor may be the anticipated AM signalling molecule ( b in fig 1). Further tests are required to distinguish between the two possibilities. However, it has also been shown that induction of PsENOD1 and PsENOD5 in both symbioses is absent in PsSYM8 mutants (see above), this indicates sym8 is common to both ENOD pathways and is added to fig 1.

The discovery of the sym genes has important implications. If one accepts that the mechanisms of AM and rhizobia infection converge, it implies that aspects of these mechanisms should be wide spread throughout plants that undergo either of the two symbioses. In keeping with this idea it was shown that rice were able to perceive the presence of NFs (Reddy et al., 1). A Medicago ENOD1 promoter�GUS complex was introduced into the non-legume rice plant. The addition of S. Meliloti NFs to the transgenic plant resulted in increased levels of GUS reporter gene expression, however the addition of chitooligosaccharide backbone molecules didn't induce ENOD1�GUS expression. Taken at face value these finding suggest a mechanism by which rice can specifically perceive NFs and respond. Whilst it's obvious that a complete perception is not present, it's still an interesting finding and may have significance in attempts to create transgenic legumes capable of benefiting from nodulation.

It's also noted, that infection thread formation cannot occur in the absence of bacteria and therefore additional bacterial factors must come into play downstream of ENOD gene activation, the exact mechanism of this is not understood and is shown as "?" on fig 1.

Gene hijacking in rhizobia evolution.

The convergence of signalling between AM infection and rhizobial nodulation, as well as the fact that several early nodulin (ENOD) genes are expressed in both symbiosis, has led to the suggestion that rhizobia�plant symbiosis may have arisen from the much older AM�plant interaction. Several bacteria exist that posses the ability to reduce nitrogen, and if these bacteria were equipped with the ability to infect a plant root hair it's seems quite possible that this could lead to bacterial endosymbiosis. This of course leads to the question of how ancestral bacteria acquired the infection ability. Study of the nodABC genes in Rhizobiaceae, genes encoding products in the pathway to NF production, suggests they are of external origin (Hirsch et al., 001), their G + C content is below average, and codon usage is different from most chromosomal genes. In addition, the chitin molecule product of the nod genes is quite unlike anything made by conventional bacteria, bacteria do not often posses chitin structures in their cell walls unlike fungi. NodC is an N-acetyl-glucosaminyl transferase that produces a chitin backbone, NodB removes an acetyl group from the terminal residue of the chitin oligomer, and NodA catalyses the transfer of a fatty acid chain onto the free amino group resulting from NodB. The action of NodA is very intriguing as there are few bacterial proteins known possessing such a mode of action, NodA like proteins have only been found in rhizobia and their source is a mystery. However, NodC protein is similar to several fungal chitin synthases, suggesting rhizobia may have acquired these genes from an ancestral fungus. This idea partially explains the genetic overlap of the perception of these genes in legumes.

It's possible that the diffusible factor discovered by Kostu and colleagues (Kostu et al.,00) may represent the fungal signalling factor and further tests may prove or disprove this. The identification of said factors may help improve our understanding of the overall evolution of nodulation.

Where are we now and where are we going?

It's clear that multiple genes are involved in both endosymbiotic interactions, and several of these genes overlap in function. The convergence of signalling mechanisms between the two-endosymbiotic symbioses offer prospect in the production of GM crop. Utilisation of the rich nitrogen provided by rhizobial interaction would greatly reduce the amounts of fertiliser required in agricultural farming. Further study of the SYM genes in model organisms will help advance of understanding, but it's worth noting that model organism do not represent all species and further study on a species by species basis may be needed before agriculture can take advantage of bacterial symbiosis. The cloning of NORK/SYMRK has provided a surge of knowledge and interest into these species, further cloning of SYM genes should be equally as intriguing, and genome sequencing projects of L.japonicus and M.truncatula should facilitate this process. It's apparent that there is a considerable amount of cross talking between pathways an example is the possible presence of sym8 in multiple pathways; this cross talk may cause constructing an overall model difficult. Arguments into the evolution of rhizobia are ongoing and whilst it's possible that these genes originated from fungal origin, it's also possible they stemmed from a bacterial source that has yet to be sequenced.

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PAKISTAN AND THE UN

Like all developing countries, Pakistan requires cash and resources to develop. The UN, the World Bank and the IMF, has had a major role in the structuring of Pakistan's economy.

0% of the World Banks lending to Pakistan since 185 has been used for agriculture and for irrigation. The largest portion of this aid has been given to the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan, which provides loans for agricultural activities. The next important allocation has been for research and extension. The World Bank has also provided loans for dairy farming and development of edible oil crops.

The World Bank has been involved in developing Pakistan's irrigation system. In 160, it helped to negotiate the Indus Basin Water Treaty between India and Pakistan, providing for the Tarbela Dam. In 175, the World Bank drew up a plan to improve the irrigation system in collaboration with the Pakistan government. It has been proposed that water charges be levied according to the amount of water used by the farmer. Presently, water supply and charges are independent of each other, so there is no incentive to use water efficiently.

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A number of studies have been made to assess energy reserves, to identify problems and to upgrade the power transmission and distribution system. The World Bank is also assisting Pakistan through a search for better energy policies.

The World Bank provides loans to lay gas pipelines from Sui to consumption centers.

The Pakistan Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation (PICIC) has received the bulk of loans. The World Bank has also lent directly to the industry, e.g., three fertilizer plants, a refinery engineering loan and credit for the Small Scale Sector have been funded.

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The monster

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I believe the monster is good and not evil because he is trying to make friends through out the story until he gets shot. When the monster is brought to life, Clerval bursts through the door and says" Frankenstein what have you created?"

At first Frankenstein thinks he is good but then he says " My creature! And living! Let me see you let me look at you ah. It is only then that he believes the monster is evil because of the way the monster looks. When the monster walks towards him Frankenstein says " But you're not what I thought you'd be… I thought I was making an angel! Do you know that? I thought I was making something better than human! Something so precious and beautiful that everyone would love it and look at you. Look at what I have done. No! This is not what I wanted. Oh, dear God, what have I done? Is it alive after all?"

After hearing all that the monster leaves Frankenstein's laboratory. Clerval than says " It's gone it's gone! Frankenstein in God's name, what have you done.

When the monsters escapes he runs to a cottage in the woods. He waits for the man to leave whose name is Felix. Just as he leaves he says good bye to Agathe. The monster knows that Agathe inside is blind and that she may be the only one to understand him. The monster looks in the mirror and drops it after seeing how hideous he really looks. Agathe heres the noise and says, " Who's that? Who's there?Cheap custom writing service can write essays on The monster

She screams but the monster says No! No! Friend! Not hurt anyone. I am their friend. Friend of everyone. I give you…

He then gives her an apple. And she wants to feel his face. The monster says " No not good, not good.

She knows he must have suffered… "What's your name, she asks?"

The monster replies by telling her he has no name and has no friends. "People hurt me, they throw rocks at me, he says."

Just as he says that Felix walks in sees the monster who is holding Agathe. He assumes that he trying to hurt her so he grabs his gun and shoots the monster in the chest. It is only then that monster becomes evil. He yells Revenge! Revenge!

So the monster is only evil at the end, where as at the beginning he is good.

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Cell Phone Privacy

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Cell Phone Tracking Raises Privacy Issues

In the article "Cell Phone Tracking Raises Privacy Issues", it talks about how people are looking into making cell phone companies that provide services able to know where their customers are at all the time. In my opinion there are three ways to look at this situation the company's view, the customer's view and an outsiders view. I'm going to try to see it form all sides.

The company's view that is the hardest to see. Tracking the customer you would be able to know the calls are made from and be able to tell if their phone is roaming in their home area, and if it is then they can correct it without having the customer getting upset because they were charged wrongly. Other than that, I really can't see any reason to be tracking the customer's location.

Next, the customer's view, my view, I believe that I find it quite annoying to know that people are tracking my every move. Onstar already uses that tracking to help people with roadside assistance. That is an example of tracking for good reasons. What if the companies take advantage of it and use the information for other uses? I don't like that either. I find it ok if I was being tracked if I made a call that I needed help, and it was an emergency. Track the call not my every move!!! Otherwise, leave me alone, and met me live my life!!

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Finally the outsider's view, it benefits the customer by being available for emergencies and helping them get help if they need it. Also, it would help to keep track of where calls are made form to keep bills fair without the customers getting upset and having to make changes on their bills.

In conclusion, I personally don't like the idea of being tracked; it's stupid and an invasion of my privacy! Other than that there really isn't a real reason not to have my phone tracked, unless it is abused and information found is used to do bad and not benefit the customer.

Please note that this sample paper on Cell Phone Privacy is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Cell Phone Privacy, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on Cell Phone Privacy will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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IROQUOIS (The Iroquois Confederacy is comprised of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora)

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IROQUOIS BIOGRAPHIES

Bonvillain, Nancy. Hiawatha Founder of the Iroquois Confederacy. New York Chelsea House Publishers; 1. 118 pages. (North American Indians of Achievement). (secondary).

This is a biography of Hiawatha, the Iroquois leader who united the independent nations of the Iroquois into one confederacy. The laws and rituals associated with the confederacy are discussed, as is its power from the 17th through the 0th centuries. Includes a chronology, a reading list, and an index.

Fradin, Dennis Brindell. Hiawatha Messenger of Peace. New York, NY Margaret K. McElderry Books; 1. 5 pages. (elementary) .

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This is a well-written account of the life of Hiawatha, the Iroquois leader who founded the national government that united the five Iroquois tribes in the 15th century. The early events of Hiawathas childhood are recreated based on accounts of traditional Iroquois life, and frequently the book incorporates more than one interpretation of events in his life. Regarding Iroquois influences on the U.S. Constitution, the author states, ...many historians claim that all Americans live according to some of Hiawathas and the Peacemakers ideas. Illustrated with a map and many photographs, including paintings by contemporary Iroquois artists. Includes a bibliography and an index.

Josephy, Alvin M. Jr. The Patriot Chiefs A Chronicle of American Indian Resistance. New York, NY Penguin Books; 161. 64 pages. (secondary).

This book describes the life stories of nine outstanding leaders in the Indian resistance movement, from different times, places, and nations. The author explains that While this is not a history of American Indians...the subjects were selected to provide variety in Indian backgrounds and culture, geographic areas and historic periods, and particular large-scale problems that led to crises and conflicts. Arranged chronologically, they help to convey in ordered sense a narrative outline of much Indian history. Although it was published 0 years ago, this book remains one of the best written and most readable books of its kind. Included are biographies of Hiawatha, King Philip, Pope, Pontiac, Tecumseh, Osceola, Black Hawk, Crazy Horse, and Chief Joseph.

McClard, Megan; Ypsilantis, George Riccio, Frank, illus. Hiawatha. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Silver Burdett Press; 18. 1 pages. (Alvin Josephy, Gen. Ed. Alvin Josephys Biography Series on American Indians). (upper elementary/secondary).

This biography of Hiawatha describes how this Iroquois leader was instrumental in establishing peace and union among the Six Nations of the Iroquois, through formation of the Iroquois League. The importance of wampum as a record of law and history in association with the League is also discussed. The book describes the early part of Hiawathas life based on oral traditions, since there are no written historical records. Includes black-and-white drawings.

IROQUOIS TRADITIONAL STORIES

Bierhorst, John; Parker, Robert Andrew, illus. The Woman Who Fell From the Sky the Iroquois Story of Creation. New York, NY William Morrow and Company, Inc.; 1. 8 pages. (lower elementary).

Sources are cited for this version of the Iroquois story of the sky woman and the creation of the world. This story explaining why there are two minds in the universe--one hard, and one that is gentle--may be complicated for young readers, for whom it is intended. Illustrated with beautiful full-page, color paintings. e/star/Iroquois/Northeast/legend.

Bierhorst, John ed.; Zimmer, Dirk, illus. The Naked Bear, Folktales of the Iroquois. New York, NY William Morrow & Co.; 187. 115 pages. (lower and upper elementary).

This collection contains sixteen Iroquois folktales retold in simple language suitable for elementary students. According to the introduction, the happy endings and the sense of evil punished and virtue rewarded in these stories, collected 1880--180, reflect 00 years of European influence. Accompanying notes explain cultural information that may be unfamiliar to readers. The illustrations tend toward cartoon-like caricatures, detracting from the editors apparent concern for accuracy. Includes a bibliography.

IROQUOIS NON-FICTION

Chadwick, Edward Marion. The People of the Longhouse. Toronto, Canada The Church of England Publishing Co., 187. 166 pages. (secondary).

This book, describing the history of the Iroquois from the creation of the League of Nations to the time of the books printing (187), opens with the following statement Unlike most Indian Nations, whose history is generally little more than vague tradition, interesting to few but ethnologists and other scientists, the People of the Longhouse, Iroquois, or Six Nations...possess a reliable history of respectable antiquity.... Following this, the author explains that the book neither pretends to be exhaustive nor attempts to deal with the wider subjects of Indian origin, life, and customs generally...no especial claim to originality is made by the writer, for much of this work is founded upon the authorities mentioned.... Like other books of this period, the information it contains, some useful in an historical context, is tainted with the Eurocentric attitudes and stereotypes of the period. For example, when describing the traditional longhouse dwellings of the Iroquois, the author states As the people advanced in civilization their primitive long houses became gradually superseded by separate dwellings, more in accordance with the manner of their white neighbours.... The book covers subjects from history and territory, to information on chiefs, laws, marriage, customs, dress, dances, clans and totems, and detailed lists of personal names. The book also contains a reprint of a paper titled, Remarks on the Indian Character. Includes black-and-white illustrations and photographs, a pronunciation guide, and an index.

Cutler, Ebbitt; Johnson, Bruce, illus. I Once Knew an Indian Woman. Boston, MA Tundra Books; 185. 7 pages. (secondary).

This book describes a Canadian womans recollections of an Iroquois woman, Madame Dey, whom she saw on summer vacations in the late 10s-10s. Madame Dey emerges as an exceptional person, who sticks to her values, rising above the world of pettiness that surrounds her.

Doherty, Craig; Doherty, Katherine M. The Iroquois. New York, NY Franklin Watts; 11. 64 pages. (upper elementary).

The focus of this Iroquois ethnography is on traditional life, the book covers such topics as subsistence, religion, daily life, and the Iroquois League. Because of the use of the past tense, it is not always clear whether the activities described are still being practiced today. Little more than one page is devoted to contemporary life. Unfortunately, the book uses reproductions of old prints that are not informative and tend to reinforce stereotypes. The relationship between the text and the illustrations is not clear.

Graymont, Barbara. The Iroquois. New York, NY Chelsea House; 188. 18 pages. (Frank W. Porter, III, Gen. Ed. Indians of North America). (upper elementary/secondary).

This description of the Iroquois who traditionally lived in what is now upstate New York discusses the origin and formation of the League of the Iroquois, traditional life, the effects of Euroamerican contact and economy on the Iroquois, and the devastating series of wars with other tribes on their western and southern borders. The book also describes the impact of the American Revolution on the Iroquois, the reservation period and the accompanying social, political, and military decline of the Confederacy, and the development of the longhouse religion founded by prophet Handsome Lake. Effects of the removal policy and continued loss of land through federal and state pressures are documented, as are recent attempts of the modern Iroquois to make the transition to a new economic system while continuing to fight for their land and rights. Illustrated with archival photographs, maps, and a color photographic essay on Iroquois false-face and husk face masks. It is important to note that many American Indians find depicting masks and using them for classroom activities offensive. Includes a glossary and an index.

Hill, Bruce; Gillen, Ian; MacNaughton, Glenda. Six Nations Reserve. Markham, Ontario Fitzhenry & Whiteside; 187. 64 pages. (Inside Communities Series). (elementary) .

This short, well-organized presentation about the Six Nations Iroquois Reserve in Ontario, Canada is told as a first-person narrative by Carla, a fictitious Onondaga girl. The book describes contemporary life on the reserve and provides some historical information on the Iroquois. Thoughtful discussion questions for students are included. Illustrated with profuse black-and-white photographs of the reserve that give a feeling for contemporary life.

Hofsinde, Robert (Gray-Wolf ); Hofsinde, Robert, illus. Indian Costumes. New York, NY William Morrow and Company; 168. 4 pages. (upper elementary).

This simple reference on the traditional dress of various American Indian tribes makes distinctions between clothing used for everyday purposes, warfare, and ceremonial occasions. White the author uses the word costume, more appropriate would be the terms clothing, dress, and regalia. Stereotypical Indian dress is a popular costume for Halloween and western movies. Includes detailed black-and-white illustrations.

Hofsinde, Robert; Hofsinde, Robert, illus. Indian Warriors and their Weapons. New York, NY William Morrow & Co.; 165. 6 pages. (upper elementary).

The weapons, fighting methods, clothing, and charms worn for battle of seven representative tribes---the Ojibwa, Iroquois, Sioux, Blackfeet, Apache, Navajo, and Crow---are the focus of this book. There is very little discussion of the causes for warfare, or the historical context in which wars were fought. Illustrated with black-and white-ink drawings of traditional dress and weapons.

Job, Kenneth; Whitman, Shirley, illus. Indians in New York State. King of Prussia, PA In Education, Inc.; 18. 47 pages. (elementary) ?.

Short chapters describe traditional Iroquois lifeways and history up to the Revolutionary War. The Iroquois are compared and contrasted with their Algonquian neighbors. Each chapter is followed by suggested activities and multiple choice questions on the reading. The text contains spelling errors (i.e. chief Powhatan is misspelled two different ways) and generalizations, such as an explanation of the term Indian file. The writing style is problematic, including frequent use of italicized words and exclamation marks.

Wheeler, M. J.; Houston, James, illus. First Came the Indians. New York Atheneum; 18. 6 pages. (lower elementary).

This book contains simplistic and short descriptions of the Creek, Iroquois, Ojibwa, Sioux, Makah, and Hopi. In the two-page section titled Indians Now, the author emphasizes that American Indians live much like other Americans in rural and urban areas, are employed in a variety of occupations, and hold on to many of their traditions. Includes black-and-red illustrations.

Wolfson, Evelyn. The Iroquois People of the Northeast. Brookfield, CT Millbrook Press; 1. 64 pages. (upper elementary).

This historical overview of the Iroquois describes traditional life, the French and Indian Wars, the establishment of reservations, and the Iroquois Confederacy today. The book opens with Facts About the Iroquois, a summary of Iroquois life written in the past tense that gives the false impression that there are no Iroquois today. While the historical perspective documents events and changes to Iroquois culture, it does not capture the dynamic nature of Iroquois culture change and adaptation are not presented in positive ways. The section on the Confederacy today discusses politics, but not the contemporary everyday life of the Iroquois. Illustrated with many fine color reprints, drawings, photographs, and maps. Includes a section on important dates in Iroquois history, a glossary, bibliography, and index.

IROQUOIS FICTION

Baker, Betty; Lobel, Arnold, illus. Little Runner of the Longhouse. New York, NY Harper C Child books; 18. 6 pages. (I Can Read). (lower elementary) ?.

This is the story of Little Runner, who wishes to participate in a False Face ceremony to earn freshly gathered maple syrup. This story has no basis in Iroquois culture. Little Runners reference to the False Faces as funny masks, and his capricious response towards them, leads one to question the accuracy of the cultural attitudes presented in the story. The illustrations are stereotypical; for instance, adults have hooked noses.

Banks, Lynne Reid. The Indian in the Cupboard. Garden City, NY Cornerstone Books; 188. 1 pages. (upper elementary) ?.

A nine year-old English boy, Omri, receives a plastic American Indian toy, a cupboard, and a key for his birthday, and finds himself in an adventure when the toy comes to life. The book objectifies American Indians and is replete with stereotypical attitudes. Little Bear, the Indian, speaks Hollywood Indian, for example, 'You touch, I kill, the Indian growled ferociously. Although this book is popular with children and educators, its offensive treatment of American Indians makes for inappropriate reading.

Banks, Lynn Reid; Geldart, William, illus. Return of the Indian. Garden City, NY Scholastic Inc.; 188. 1 pages. (upper elementary) ?.

In this sequel to The Indian in the Cupboard, Omri finds Little Bear (the plastic toy Indian) close to death and in need of help. Like the original book, it abounds with stereotypes, for example 'Astonishing these primitives, said Matron. 'Perfect control over the body. None over the emotions. Includes black-and-white illustrations.

Banks, Lynne Reid; Philpot, Graham, illus. The Secret of the Indian. London, England William Collins Sons & Co., Ltd.; 18. 144 pages. (upper elementary) ?.

In this story, Omri engages in adventures with his plastic toys---Little Bull, son of an Iroquois chief, and Boone, a Texas cowboy---who come to life in contemporary England. Omri and his friend Patrick, who temporarily goes back in time to the wild West, find it increasingly difficult to keep their family from learning their secret. As with all the books in this series, Omri is presented as the powerful controller who determines the fate of the Indian characters, who must look to Omri for all their needs. Stereotypical language is pervasive in the book, such as when Little Bull says, Omri wake! Day come! Much need do!.

Girion, Barbara. Indian Summer. New York, NY Scholastic Inc.; 10. 18 pages. (secondary).

Teenaged Joni and her family accompany her pediatrician father to the Woodland Reservation for a month during the summer in this contemporary story. On the reservation she meets Sarah Birdsong, an Iroquois girl. Although both girls are skeptical of one another and their differing cultures, they slowly learn to understand and appreciate their differences during their summer together.

Katz, Welwyn Wilton. False Face. New York, NY Dell; 10 Mar. 176 pages. (upper elementary).

The action in this fictional story set in contemporary London, Ontario, centers around the discovery of two ancient Iroquois False Face masks. The masks, which retain their power to inflict or divert ill, cause conflict between the thirteen-year-old heroine, Lanie, and her mother. All characters in the story are non-Native, with the exception of Lanies friend, Tom, who is half-Iroquois. Only Tom recognizes the dangers of the masks and eventually returns them to the bog where they were found. The story is well-written, fast-paced, and exciting, and introduces the issues of repatriation and Indian and non-Indian prejudice. However, the use of the masks as the basis for an exciting adventure story demeans their sacred character.

IROQUOIS MOHAWK BIOGRAPHY

Bolton, Jonathan, and Wilson, Claire. Joseph Brant Mohawk Chief. New York, NY Chelsea House; 1. 10 pages. (Liz Sonnenborn, Series Ed. North American Indians of Achievement) (secondary)

This is an informative biography of Joseph Brant (174--1807), the Mohawk leader who represented his people to their British allies. Brant sought to protect Iroquois lands from being taken over by Euroamericans. He was a leader in an alliance of midwestern and southern tribes to battle the spread of non-Indian settlers, and successfully negotiated with the British to secure land for the Iroquois in Canada. No cultural information is included in the biography. An introductory essay on American Indian leadership outlines the differing characteristics necessary for successful leadership. Illustrated with reproductions of black-and-white prints and maps. Includes suggestions for further reading, a chronology of the life of Joseph Brant, and an index.

IROQUOIS MOHAWK NON-FICTION

Bonvillain, Nancy. The Mohawk. New York, NY Chelsea House; 1. 11 pages. (Frank W. Porter, III, Gen. Ed. Indians of North America). (upper elementary/secondary).

This comprehensive guide examines the Mohawks history from earliest origins to the present. A Northeast longhouse culture, the Mohawk originally lived in the area that is present-day eastern New York State. The book includes information on Early, Middle, and Late Woodland cultures, Iroquoian history, settlement areas, traditional activities, contact with Europeans and Americans in the 18th and 1th centuries, and the Handsome Lake religion. A final section discusses the lives of contemporary Iroquois. Includes a bibliography, Mohawk-at-a-Glance, a glossary, and index. Illustrated with archival and contemporary black-and-white photographs, maps, and illustrations.

Duvall, Jill. The Mohawk. Chicago, IL Childrens Press; 11. 45 pages. (A New True Book). (lower elementary).

This short, easy-to-read description of the Mohawk covers social and political history including the importance and use of wampum and the Great Law of Peace and how it influenced the U.S. Constitution. Illustrated with maps, paintings, archival and contemporary color and black-and-white photographs. Includes a glossary and an index.

IROQUOIS MOHAWK FICTION

Peck, Robert Newton. Fawn. Boston Little, Brown and Company; 175. 14 pages. (secondary).

Sixteen-year-old Fawn, the son of a French Jesuit and grandson of a Mohawk warrior, witnesses the battle between the French and the English at Fort Ticonderoga in 1758. While the Mohawk have aligned themselves with the English and the Huron with the French, Fawn does not choose sides. He believes only the American Indians have a right to the land for which the Europeans are fighting over. Fawn saves the life of young colonist Ben[edict] Arnold from Connecticut, who in turn advises him on the movement of the English, so that Fawn can help his father who has chosen to fight along with the French. This is a story of a young boy who reaches his manhood and tells his father to return to France, while he joins Ben in Connecticut to learn to farm. The dialogue in this book is unrealistic and trite.

Peck, Robert Newton. Jo Silver. Englewood, FL Pineapple Press; 185. 1 pages. (secondary).

Sixteen year-old Kenny Matson hikes alone into the Adirondack wilderness in upstate New York in the hopes of finding Jo Silver Fox, a Mohawk writer-turned-hermit, whose work he admires. He finds the author, now a blind elderly woman living alone in the mountains, and spends several days with her. Through a mystical connection, Jo feels that Kenny is, in spirit, her daughter who died in childhood, as well as the link connecting Jos soul to that of Kennys prep school teacher Dr. Gray. 'Yesterday...she said, 'I called you my spiritual daughter...because no sooner had you arrived...I knew you were my lanyard...linking me to a past from which I ran. But more, connecting me to a third person. Someone whose face is only a blur. A face with no name. The book presents little accurate information on American Indians. At one point, Jo tells Kenny, 'In case you havent heard, we Mohawks are obsolete. Dinosaurs of yesterday. And the improbable mystical link between the characters is another example of stereotyping American Indians as close to nature and spiritual. Not recommended as a source of information on American Indians.

IROQUOIS SENECA TRADITIONAL STORIES

Powell, Mary, ed.; Reade, Deborah, illus. Wolf Tales Native American Childrens Stories. Santa Fe, NM Ancient City Press; 1. 8 pages. (elementary).

These short stories from the Cherokee, Omaha, Seneca, Pawnee, Tlingit, Sioux, and Tsimshian describe the special attributes and power of the wolf and its interaction with other animals, including humans. Following each story is information, adapted for young children, on the historical and contemporary location of the tribe. Sources are provided for each of the stories. Illustrated with black-and-white and monotone drawings.

IROQUOIS SENECA NON-FICTION

Duvall, Jill. The Seneca. Chicago, IL Childrens Press; 11. 45 pages. (A New True Book). (lower elementary).

This is a short, easy-to-read description of the traditional life and political history of the Seneca. A few pages are devoted to Ely S. Parker, the first sachem of the Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse), who later was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs by President Ulysses S. Grant. Illustrated with black-and-white archival and contemporary photographs. Includes a glossary and index.

IROQUOIS SENECA FICTION

Porter, Donald Clayton. The White Indian Series. Reprint of 180 ed. Boston, MA Bantam; 184. (secondary) ?.

This series of seven novels relates the story of Renno, the son of white settlers, who is adopted into an Iroquois tribe when his settlement is raided in the late 17th century. The books describe Renno as extraordinary, unique, and possessing godlike qualities, and repeatedly emphasize, in both subtle and blatant fashion, how his white blood makes him somehow superior to the American Indians with whom he lives. When Rennos mother encourages him to marry in War Chief, book three of the series, Renno wanted to protest that he knew virtually every eligible young woman in the entire Seneca nation and wasnt interested in any. When he does decide to wed, it is to a white woman. Although somewhat disturbed by Rennos American Indian upbringing, the bride-to-bes mother reassures herself that the questionable Renno is acceptable as a husband for her daughter, because he was reared an Indian, to be sure, but its plain he was the son of colonists.... The books use stereotypical references such as savage, primitive, hot-blooded, and Indian phlegm when describing Indian characteristics.

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It was white men (discovering it at the end of the 1th century) who named it Medicine Wheel, terminology they applied to anything Indian observed or told them they didnt understand. White men of the Sheridan Chamber of Commerce -- particularly as tourism in the Bighorn National Forest got underway as economically significant to the town -- made a huge mystery of it, and ignored the fact that there are at least 40 other wheels on the high plains (mostly in Canada), as well as some sites far removed, both spatially and culturally.

One of these (Cahokia in Ohio) has been called An American Woodhenge because of similar astronomical sightings from a large circle of postholes, all that remains. The -henge and the interest of astronomers in solar, lunar and star sighting relationships, comes from a 160s analysis of the famous Stonehenge in England. In the late 160s British astronomer G.S. Hawkins showed with astronomical computations that the ancient circle of huge megaliths was a solar-lunar and stellar analog computer made by pre-historic Celtic tribespeople. This gave Eddy, then an astronomer (whose speciality was the sun) at the High Altitude Observatory at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, near Boulder, Colorado, the idea to make an exact survey of the Bighorn wheel, and observations and computations following the methods used by Hawkins. To see if the rocks, the mountain, sun, stars and the spatial directions could tell us something people have long forgotten. He found that they could, that nature itself speaks to those who know how to interpret, via astronomy, geometry, and mathematics. Generally, the methods used -- at least until the excitement this discovery occasioned -- are not known to anthros.

was supplied by the U.S. Forest Service Bighorn district office is taken (probably in the late 170s) looking due east (there is a red east marker at the edge of the windswept bare shoulders stepped drop-off). Snow is still visible on the distant ridges and forest below, but has been blown clear of the shoulder here. The wheel is about 0 feet in diameter, though its not a perfect circle. The central cairn (solar backsight) is about 1 feet in diameter. It was about 4 feet tall when I visited it in 178. The sunrise sighting cairn is at the lower right from this photo angle, separated from the wheels rim by a 1 foot spoke extension. It is U-shaped, longer than wide, and open at the end toward the circles center. You can stand or sit in this cairn -- I slept in it, lying stretched out in my sleeping bag, then I sat up -- to sight the solstice rising sun along the spoke and through an old dead branch I placed in the central cairn. Behind you will be a steep precipice, down to the Bighorn River valley, across which there are visible snowy summits of high peaks that bound Yellowstone National Park, 100 miles away. On the front lower left of the wheel is the starsight cairn. Across the rim, on its eastern side, are the cairns used as backsights for sighting the dawn-rising stars Aldebaran, Rigel, and Sirius, as calculated and discovered by astronomer John Eddy in 17-4. At the right is a cairn that lines up with dawn-rising of the southern bright star Fomalhaut, as discovered by Jack A. Robinson, in 180.

The ancient geology of Medicine Mountain has formed a very special place, perhaps unique in all the world. Regardless of when the Wheel was built up there, there is every likelihood it has always been sacred to Native peoples, because its special character, an acient sacredness long predating the existence of humankind and even animals, can be felt. Thats probably why the Wheel was built there, actually.

Tourist desecrations might have been worse, probably would have been, except for years of determined protective efforts by the Medicine Wheel Alliance, an organization that got its start through the Northern Cheyenne Cultural Commission. In 188, the Forest Service made a developmental proposal for the wheel, which was protested by people from Northern Cheyenne, Crow, Arapaho, Sioux, and Blackfeet tribes, who later formed the protective organization.

Anthros seem mainly to have asked the Crow about the wheel (their reservation in Montana is nearest, and there is a small, damaged wheel near Fort Smith on their present rez land), Northern Cheyenne may know more about it. The Wheel figures in an unsuccessful treaty-based land claim filed by the Northern Cheyenne in 1, just inside (its shoulder precipice forming part of) the boundary of land including the Bighorns and Powder River country they maintained the U.S. took illegally).

According to Northern Cheyenne Bill Tall Bull in 188, Ive had to hide myself up there (from the Forest Service) while conducting ceremonial prayers on the mountain. Rangers have been known to kick Indians off the mountain. Many times I had to hide from them and the tourists while there for prayer.How sad, when I head this, just 10 years after I was up there all alone, it wasnt famous then

After my night alone up there seeing the solstice sun rise right on the ancient altars lineup I went to the home of a traditional woman elder friend at the nearby Northern Cheyenne rez. No one there could tell me much about it, then, except that It was up there that the instructions were given for the first Sun Dance. The Wheel itself was said to be those instructions.

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Pabst Brewing

Milwaukee, WI

Pabst - The brewery that lived on survival

Pabst Brewing Company, one of the oldest of the great brewing companies in America, is celebrated its 150th Anniversary in 14 . Since its humble beginning in 1844, the Pabst Brewing Company has maintained a leading position in the brewing industry as a survivor. Jacob Best and his four sons would be amazed if they could see the progress of their brewery today.

Cheap Custom Essays on Pabst Blue Ribbon

In 184, Jacob and Charles Best established a vinegar factory in Milwaukee. (Remember when Wisconsin was still a United States territory?) Charles Best returned to Mettenheim, Germany and brought the rest of the Best family to Milwaukee in early 1844. Rather than starting new when moving to Milwaukee, Jacob Best essentially relocated his German brewery. He was immediately ahead of much of his competition.

Upon returning to Milwaukee, Jacob made the first real estate purchase on Chestnut Street Hill, the present site of Pabst Brewing Company today. A small brewery was established in the fall of 1844, and Jacob's original brew kettle had a capacity of only 18 barrels. On February , 1845, the first lager beer from Best and Company was available for sale in Milwaukee. In the first year, Best's brewery produced 00 barrels. Best not only brewed lager but also ale, porter and rye whiskey.

During Best's first year of business, six months later Charles Best withdraw from Best and Company and went back to the vinegar business. Five years later, Lorenz Best left the Company and convinced Charles Best to get back into the brewing business, and later established the Plank Road Brewery (eventually became the Miller Brewing Company).

On July 1, 185, the first display advertisement for Best and Company was placed in the Wisconsin Banner. When Jacob Best, Sr. retired, Jacob Best Jr. and Phillip Best Best carried on the business of Best and Company under a partnership. Best and Company was then producing ,500 barrels annually and was ranked fourth largest among Milwaukee breweries.

In the mid 1850s, Phillip Best set his sights on Chicago, 0 miles to the south; and there he set up the Company's first branch sales office and warehouse. Jacob Best, Sr. chose his son Phillip to take charge of the brewery when he retired in 185. He was the one proudest of the reputation for quality the young brewery had already won and was the first to see chances for improving the techniques of brewing. His brothers were content with the brewery's production of a few thousand barrels a year, but Phillip's plans for the future of the business were on a much larger scale.

Jacob Best Jr. and Phillip Best terminated their partnership, over major disagreement about the brewery's expansion and future. Jacob Best Jr. sold out his interest and Phillip Best continued the business as sole proprietor. Soon after the dissolution, business began to decline steadily. By 186, the brewery was producing little more than half its capacity. Phillip Best's health was failing, and asked his family to continue the business. No one seemed interested and the brewery's future looked grim. Survival was Phillip's main priority for his failing company.

During Phillip's Lake Michigan boat trips to Chicago, he became acquainted with Frederick Pabst, a young steamship captain on the Great Lakes. Phillip found in the young captain with the same belief in the future of American industry that he had. Phillip was not the only one to take notice of Frederick Pabst, Phillip Best's daughter Maria, married the Captain on March 5, 185.

Captain Frederick Pabst decided to sell out his shipping interests and take a partnership in the brewery in 186 after a violent storm beached his ship, The Huron, on the sands of Whitefish Bay. When Captain Pabst bought a half interest in the Phillip Best Brewing Company in 1864, the plant's production was at 5,000 barrels annually. Emil Schandein, another son-in-law of Phillip's, became another partner with Phillip Best and Pabst.

The partnership between Phillip Best and Captain Pabst was dissolved in 1864, and a new partnership agreement between Captain Pabst and Emil Schandein was drawn up for Best and Company. On July 17, 186, Phillip Best died.

Captain Pabst had three major ambitions to constantly improve the quality of his beer; to continue to increase the capacity of the brewery; and to sell his product to an even broader market. To realize these goals, the Captain went out after the best brewmasters of his day, even traveling abroad to sell the virtues of living in America to the men he wanted to work at the Milwaukee brewery. He increased the capacity of his brewery by convincing the stockholders that profits should be put into bigger and better equipment. To broaden his market, Captain took to the road and to the high seas, establishing sales connections throughout the United States and Europe.

November 11, 1870, The Melms brewery was purchased by Best and Company. At the time, Melms brewery was the largest brewery in Milwaukee. Even though Melms brewery sales were slipping, the brewery was still operational. After the purchase by Frederick Pabst, the Melms brewery became the South Side Brewery and the original Phillip Best brewery on the hill was known as the Empire Brewery. In 1886, operations at South Side Brewery were discontinued. In 187 the output was 100,000 barrels and Captain Pabst was President of the Company. Best and Company became the second largest brewery in the United States.

A year later, 187, the Phillip Best Brewing Company was incorporated in Wisconsin. Two years later, the Phillip Best Brewing Company started bottling their beer, but turned the department over to Stamm and Meyer in Milwaukee. In 187, a Boyle ice machine was purchased for the Empire Brewery and was installed by 1880. Before the installation of the ice machine, Phillip Brewing Company suffered its first loss after a fire destroyed the malthouse, grain elevators and office building on December 1, 187.

Between 187 and 18, Phillip Best Brewing Company operated two breweries and opened 40 beer offices around the country. On February 5, 1881, Phillip Best Brewing Company purchased the bottling business back from Stamm and Meyer and continued the bottling department under their own name.

The famous Blue Ribbon label did not get started until 188. Prior to 188, Phillip Best Brewing Company had received awards for their beer. In 1876, Pabst won both the highest awards for bottled beer and a gold medal. In 1878 at a Paris World's Fair, Pabst again won more medals.

In 188, bottling became significantly important to the brewing business. When bottles were first used, these were generally plain and were not appealing to the public. Pabst decided to add pieces of blue ribbons tied around the necks of Best Select beer bottles. It didn't take long before the public continued to ask for The beer with the blue ribbon. By 18, this special packaging idea became so popular that the company was purchasing 00,000 yards of silk ribbons, which workers tied by hand around each bottle. In 185, words Blue Ribbon were eventually added to the label of Select Beer, and in January 188, the Blue Ribbon label was first used.

In 18, at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Pabst won five medals and an honorable mention. When a jury was then established to present the highest award for beer, an argument was developed by all the breweries who entered in the contest. The eastern breweries complained they were not represented correctly and the western brewers complained that the jury members were not beer experts. The judges confused things more by making a preliminary finding in favor of Anheuser-Busch as the winner. After a review of the chemical analysis, the judges then gave the top award to Pabst. Even a legal action threat from Anheuser-Busch didn't change the judge's minds.

On November 5, 1888, the Company suffered an irreparable loss by the death of Emil Schandein. Four months later the name of Phillip Best Brewing Company was changed to the Pabst Brewing Company.

Pabst Brewing Company has made many important contribution to Milwaukee. Much of Pabst's advertising helped create the city's favorable public image. The 180s campaign Milwaukee beer is famous - Pabst has made it so, along with similar advertising such as Schlitz's The beer that made Milwaukee famous, brought the city much recognition.

Between August 5-1, 188 Captain Pabst and the Company helped in the entertainment of the rd National Encampment of the G.A.R. in Milwaukee.

Captain Pabst spent time on Milwaukee projects such as the Whitefish Bay Pleasure Resort development. Pabst also built a 1-story Pabst Building in downtown Milwaukee, rebuilt various theaters, and also helped organized the Wisconsin National Bank in 18. Pabst purchased the old Nunnemacher Grand Opera House, located opposite Milwaukee's City Hall in early 180 and changed it to the Pabst Theatre. On September 17, 180, the theater opened and Captain Fred Pabst donated it to the City of Milwaukee.

As Pabst was helping improve Milwaukee, he was also maintaining constant improvements in his brewing process to produce an even better product. Right after the Pipe Line Act was approved by congress on June 18, 180, Pabst installed a pipe line carry beer from the fermentation cellars to the bottle house Pabst continued to expand his brewery by purchasing the Falk, Jung and Borchert Brewing Company in 181. President Pabst called to his assistance in the management of the enterprise, Frank Falk and Ernst Borchert. In the same year the capital stock increased to 10 million dollars.

July , 18, another fire broke out in the bottling works of the Pabst Brewing Company causing damage of $40,000. It was confined chiefly to the storage and supply departments, and did not interfere with bottling. Sparks set fire to the former homestead of Jacob Best, the founder of the brewery.

The year 185, was busy for Pabst Brewing Company. First, the Stadt Theatre, owned by Pabst, was destroyed by fire. Captain Frederick Pabst rebuilt theater at a cost of $150,000. Later that year, Pabst first made plans of expansion by planning a large brewery in Atlanta, Georgia.

Immediately after Captain Frederick Pabst's death on January 1, 104, his two sons, Gustav and Fred, Jr., began to make extensive improvements in the Milwaukee brewery. Captain Pabst's second son, Fred, worked in the brewery until 105 to operate Pabst Farms in Oconomowoc, Wisconsin. With Gustav Pabst as President, installation of a new malting house and a fermentation building was started. Newer equipment for bottling came into place. Pabst also experimented with the steel keg, but could not figure out to prevent the metal from spoiling the beer taste. Finally, Pabst scrapped the project and went back to wooden kegs.

In December of 104, Pabst Brewing Company filed suit against the Storz Brewing Company in Omaha, Nebraska for an alleged infringement of Pabst's copyright trademark and device, the Blue Ribbon. Storz Brewing Company had been using the Blue-Ribbon brand name on its bottled beer for about a year. After a year of court battles, Storz discontinued the Blue Ribbon name from its brand.

At the beginning of the 100s, orders of over 0 million feet of silk blue ribbon were placed by the Pabst Brewing Company to decorate its blue ribbon beer bottles and other packages. One factory supplying 10 million feet of the ribbon, kept their mill stringing the ribbons around the clock for seven days a week. It took almost a year to fill the order. Keeping up with modern technology and after labor complaints about tying blue ribbons on the bottlenecks by hand, new bottling equipment with special blue ribbon fasteners were added to speed up production. Pabst also decided to use Crown Cork and Seal Company bottle caps by October, 106.

A setback for Pabst Brewing Company occurred on October 5, 10. A major boiler house explosion devastated three stories at Pabst Brewing Company early that morning. The damage was estimated about $50,000 and injured several workmen. Pabst Brewing Company filed suit against the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance to recover $150,000 for the damage caused by the boiler. The case lingered for months in court on whether the loss was caused by a single explosion or by three explosions in quick succession. Pabst's insurance policy listed its liability to $50,000 for each explosion. Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance claimed that the explosion was from one boiler and Pabst claimed there were three explosions; therefore, Pabst tried to recover the limit for each one. Eventually, Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance only paid $50,000 for the damage. Pabst wasted no time in completing the repairs and production continued.

Pabst enjoyed great prosperity in the early 0th century. The name Pabst was so recognized for quality, the brewery registered the handwriting of Pabst Brewing Company, done by Captain Frederick Pabst as a registered trademark. A company newsletter for employees and agents called Blue Ribbon News was first published on May 1, 11. Prohibition was becoming a threat to the American breweries. Pabst reacted by setting up different ventures of business.

On March 1, 116, Pabst introduced its first non-alcohol Pablo to the public. and on December 4, 10 The Pabst Corporation was organized which operated the non-alcohol operations and the Pabst Reality Corporation. The Pabst Brewing Company was finally dissolved on December 4, 10, due to Prohibition.

On December 1, 1, Pabst Corporation acquired the business of the Sheboygan Beverage Company to continue the soft drink and Pablo operations.

With no hope of Repeal, Gustav Pabst resigned as President on December , 11. Fred Pabst returned to the brewery as President to try saving the family company. In December 1, Fred sold his cheese division of Pabst Farms with assets chiefly in the form of bulk cheese inventory, to the Pabst Corporation. The cheese was produced at the Pabst Farms, but the brewery used their cellars to age cheese. The salesmen, trained in selling beer, found it difficult to readjust to sell the new product. With the help of advertising and strong campaigns, the cheese business thrived during Prohibition. Starting with employees in 15, the brewery employed 176 by 17. Cheese was sold in three forms, Pabst wonder process cheese, Pabst-ett and pasteurized package cheese. Pabst-ett was the most successful. By 10, over 8 million pounds of Pabst-ett had been sold.

Kraft Foods sued Pabst claiming Pabst had infringed on a Kraft patent for process cheese. Kraft won the case in 17. The two companies entered into a licensing agreement in which Pabst-ett, a product similar to Velveeta, continued to be produced in Wisconsin, but was sold through Kraft.

The cheese operation was disbanded with the end of Prohibition in 1. Kraft bought out the Pabst cheese operations, and Pabst started to get back in to the beer business.

With optimistic foresight, the Pabst Corporation bought the Puritan Malt Extract Company in Chicago on January , 10. Two years later, Premier Malt Products Company voted to merge with the Pabst Corporation, and the name of Premier Malt Products Company was changed to Premier-Pabst Corporation. Fred Pabst, now in his sixties, wanted his brewery to excel after Repeal. Harris Perlstein, then President of Premier Malt Products Company became the President of the new combined Company.

After Repeal, Premier-Pabst Corporation was quick to get back into the beer business. Demand for the Pabst Blue Ribbon beer was so high, the company wasted no time in modernizing the Milwaukee brewery. On March 0, 15, metal kegs were first adopted by Premier-Pabst. Compared to the first metal kegs at the turn-of-the century, the new metal kegs were much better for beer storage and transport.

Pabst needed more volume capacity. In 14, Pabst opened a new brewery in Peoria Heights, Illinois. In 146, Pabst purchased the Hoffman Beverage Company in Newark, New Jersey. By expanding toward the west, in April 148, Pabst purchased the Los Angeles Brewing Company in Los Angeles, California. Now with Pabst beers brewed throughout the country, surviving as a National brand was eminent. In July 15, Pabst became the first major brewery to test market their beer in keglined cans. Not knowing if the idea would work, Pabst did not print their top-selling brand, Blue Ribbon on the can. If the idea didn't work, Pabst believe their flagship brand would receive a bad reputation; and sales would drop. Instead, the idea worked; and Blue Ribbon was added shortly thereafter.

During the next six years before World War II, with Perlstein and Pabst's leadership, Pabst kept up with competition . On December 0, 18, Premier-Pabst Corporation changed its name back to the Pabst Brewing Company.

Advertising was important to Pabst's strong market. June 140, the slogan Thirty-three fine brews blended into one great beer was first used in national advertising. In 14, Pabst started advertising on national radio network. It wasn't until 150 when Pabst started to sponsor boxing on CBS-TV in 150. Production and sales soared in the early 150s. Now with Pabst Brewing Company growing in the early 150s, Fred Pabst retired as Chairman of the Board in May 154.

After Fred Pabst's retirement, sales started to slip for Pabst Brewing Company. Several unsuccessful campaigns such as Pabst Blue Ribbon Time campaign of 156 and Pabst Makes it perfect campaign of 157 only stabilized Pabst's sales. The introduction of 16-oz cans in November 154 didn't help sales much.

Pabst Brewing Company was having some financial and marketing problems in 158. Pabst needed new blood to survive the years to come. Harris Perlstein, then Chairman of Pabst, was under pressure from the Pabst family, which has staged a proxy fight to try to oust him and regain control of the Company. Perlstein's main concern was survival. Pabst family's effort failed when Perlstein reacted by hiring Blatz Brewing Company President James Windham, who was responsible for reviving Blatz's market share in the 150s. Windham's reputation in the industry was respected by many breweries. Windham, at first, did not want to join Pabst as the new President unless he could bring Blatz with him. Perlstein agreed, welcoming Windham's dowry of Blatz Brewing Company and its aging Milwaukee plant. The first campaign under Windham's regime was on April 158; Pabst passed the 100 million barrel spot since its beginning in 1844. A red stripe was added to blue ribbon logo to celebrate the memorable event. The red stripe is still with the logo today.

Windham wanted to bring Blatz with him because he needed to increase Pabst volume to stay on top of competition. But Windham didn't get a chance. The Justice Department brought suit almost immediately, wanting Pabst to divest itself of Blatz, Pabst fought the antitrust case for 11 years, even to the Supreme Court, but lost. Blatz was sold to G. Heileman, which was later to play its own nuclear role in Pabst's future. Windham, meantime, was never sure he'd keep Blatz, sought another way of generating substantial volume. He did it by lowering the price of the company's flagship Pabst Blue Ribbon brand in some parts of the country.

The short term effect was successful. Pabst had instant volume. Pabst Blue Ribbon beer was known as The Premium Beer at a Popular Price. This helped Pabst ride the 160s boom in beer market, a market Windham predicted.

By 161, Pabst was smashing company sales records. Revenues hit $175 million, an increase of 16 percent from the year before. Net income was averaging $5 million. From . million barrels annually in 158, Windham's leadership brought Pabst's volume to 10.5 million barrels by 170 and then to its all-time high volume of 18 million barrels in 177. From the outside, Windham appeared as a brewery industry hero, but his influence was spotty. Windham allowed a haunting fear of debt to cloud his vision from his experiences from the Great Depression. He depended only on cash to finance modernization and new facilities. This decision of cash management would come back to haunt Pabst Brewing Company in the form of skyrocketing production costs. In turn, Pabst built only one new modern and efficient brewery during the prosperous 160-70s. (The town of Perry, Georgia changed its name to Pabst, Georgia until G. Heileman purchased the plant in 18, and the town went back to being called Perry.)

There were other strategic errors caused by Windham. By keeping the Company substantially debt-free, he made the Pabst balance sheet attractive to the takeover artists who would come swarming around after his retirement. Management at the top was thin. He ran the company with an iron fist. When Windham made a decision, you could not challenge or disagree with him. Windham had a forceful personality. One brewery worker recalls, You could hear him all over the building when he was upset.

In 17, a heart attack forced Windham into semi-retirement. He ran the Company as Chairman and Chief Executive Officer from his Mississippi home. Frank DeGuire became the new President of Pabst. Still, Windham continued to control the Company until his death in 177.

In 177 Pabst Brewing Company had over $70 million cash in the Bank of Delaware. Immediately after Windham's death, takeover artists from all over the country were after Pabst's assets. DeGuire did not have an easy task for the next three years. He spearheaded Pabst's defense against all takeover artists. At first, an unfriendly takeover by APL Corporation of Long Island, New York (a manufacturer of cocktail swizzle sticks). APL was heavily in debt, and if successful, was to use Pabst's assets to finance the acquisition. DeGuire's defense was so successful, the APL's two-year acquisition fight was blocked by the Commissioner of Securities.

Now that APL was out of the way, Pabst's days in the ring were far from over. The company management had little time to catch its breath before a new, and ultimately far more destructive, takeover battles were joined.

As DeGuire continued to fight off takeover artists, Pabst needed a marketing expert, someone to solve Pabst's image problem created by Windham's Premium beer at a popular price strategy. Pabst Brewing Company hired Anthony Amendola, the President of D'Arcy MacManus Masius Advertising Agency, as the new President of Pabst. Amendola was credited with sending Anheuser-Busch sales soaring in the 170s. DeGuire stayed on as CEO and Chairman.

Amendola believed there was nothing wrong with the Pabst Blue Ribbon product itself. It just wasn't appealing to the young beer drinkers. The older beer drinkers, who were loyal to the brand were dying off. In turn, Amendola created the Give that man a Blue Ribbon campaign - arguably more memorable than the ad campaigns immediately preceding Amendola's arrival at Pabst.

Pabst acquired the Blitz-Weinhard brewery in 17. The acquisition got Pabst the number one selling malt liquor brand, Old English 800 and sales increased percent, largely due to the malt liquor market. During 17 and 181, the DeGuire- Amendola relationship was a tense one. DeGuire and Amendola attempted to put together a leveraged buyout of Pabst. Both couldn't come to an agreement, and DeGuire backed out at the last minute. Amendola put together a presentation to the Pabst board as to why DeGuire should be fired.

The Board trusted DeGuire. They did not have the highest regard for his leadership, but they trusted him. Amendola was eventually fired in 181. He was quickly hired by Schlitz, where he stayed for six months until Stroh bought out Schlitz later that year. About the same time, DeGuire resigned his position at Pabst because he saw another takeover battle, the Heileman buyout. DeGuire recruited several action oriented people to the Pabst Board. William Kimberly - Kimberly-Clark Corp, Frederick Stratton - Briggs & Stratton, and Milwaukee financier Sheldon Lubar, to fight off Heileman.

The Pabst Board needed a new leader. The Board took a chance and hired Bill Smith, former President of the Pittsburgh Brewing Company. At the same time, takeover battles continued. Minneapolis businessman, Irwin Jacobs, entered the ring by buying 8 percent of Pabst stock and eventually 15 percent. Speculation of Jacobs attempting to take over the whole company caused problems to the Board. Jacobs had been labeled The Liquidator after he bought Grain Belt Brewing Company and sold the assets to Heileman. The reputation stays with him to this day. Jacobs formed the Shareholders Committee to Revitalize Pabst and called for a proxy contest to oust the Pabst Board and replace it with his own committee. Eventually, both Heileman and Jacobs were fought off by the Board created by DeGuire, but at what cost? To stop Jacobs, Pabst paid over $11 million in legal fees.

Under Bill Smith's leadership, many changes were made to keep the Company going. To tighten Pabst corporate belt, 17 Pabst Vice Presidents were fired. $80 million was spent on advertising, and $0 million in price discounts to wholesalers. Pabst also acquired the Olympia Brewing Company in 18. Smith and another Pabst executive tried to structure an executive buyout, but could not arrange the financing. Pabst had closed the Peoria Heights, Illinois; Los Angeles, California; Portland, Oregon; Pabst, Georgia; and Newark, New Jersey plants. Pabst traded breweries with Stroh in 18. Pabst traded their St. Paul, Minnesota (Theodore Hamm), for Stroh's Tampa, Florida plant in 18. Stroh eventually bought the brewery back in 187.

After seven years of battling takeovers, the board gave the decision to sell the brewery in 184. When California millionaire Paul Kalmanovitz offered to purchase Pabst Brewing Company in 185 for $6 million, the news was not welcome in Milwaukee. Kalmanovitz has had a reputation of purchasing breweries and running them into the ground, only to profit on past reputation. Paul Kalmanovitz had been involved with the buyouts since 18. Since his offer was the only one Pabst accepted, the deal was closed.

The next four years were not pleasant for Pabst. Once holding the number position in the United States, Pabst was no longer a contender for the National Brand. Many employees still believe Kalmanovitz saved the brewery to this day. Even though inside the brewery had high hope, the beer drinkers turned away from from Pabst Blue Ribbon label. Kalmanovitz cut out all advertising and terminated most of the management. His business strategy was to run a lean ship. With almost no advertising budget, he was able to cut prices. He also removed quality control. There was no consistency from one batch to another. He also bought the rights to many pieces of antique art work that had been in the Pabst family and had been part of the Milwaukee heritage for many years. He moved the art from Milwaukee to his home state of California, where he also ran the Company practically from his pocket checkbook. Pabst future looked serious. Brewing industry analysts believed Pabst Brewing Company would not be around after the year 1.

In 188, Kalmanovitz passed away; and Lutz Issleib took over as Chairman and President of Pabst. Issleib promised to devote his career by seeing Pabst make a strong comeback. Ironically, brewing industry analysts did not believe it could be done and suggested Pabst close shop. Issleib would not listen and followed his dream.

Immediately, Issleib managed to bring back sales and install a new sense of pride at Pabst. For the first time since 185, Pabst was pouring money into advertising and its breweries. His dream is becoming a prophecy. Since Issleib took over, Pabst has been averaging a percent increase each year. This year may be producing close to 8 million barrels compared to 5. million barrels in 188. Today, Pabst has regained a great market share in the West Coast and the Midwest.

Currently, Pabst is enjoying its sixth year under Issleib's leadership. Despite brewing industry analysts' predictions five years ago, Pabst is on the rebound and is slowly regaining the market share it lost during the 170s and 80s. Pabst has plans to expand their distribution beyond the Midwest and West Coast regions for 14. Pabst's campaign PBR Me ASAP is now in its third year, regaining it's image of a quality brewer to the younger beer drinker market. Pabst's national distribution could happen within this generation.

As a fitting climax of 150 years of constant battling and successful efforts to keep up with the times, Pabst Brewing Company is a survivor. Pabst management teams and employees at both Milwaukee and Olympia plants are still carrying out the goals once set by the Bests and Captain Frederick Pabst a long time ago.

Please note that this sample paper on Pabst Blue Ribbon is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Pabst Blue Ribbon, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on Pabst Blue Ribbon will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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