The South

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The South, which was known as the Confederate States of America, seceded from the North, which was also known as the Union, for many different reasons. The reason they wanted to succeed was because there were four decades of great sectional conflict between the two. Between the North and South there were deep economic, social, and political differences. The South wanted to become an independent nation. There were many reasons why the South wanted to succeed but the main reason had to do with the Norths view on slavery. These disputes between the north and south led to the Civil War.

There were reasons other then slavery, that the South disagreed on and that persuaded them to succeed from the Union. The North favored a loose interpretation of the United States Constitution. They wanted to grant the federal government increased powers. The South wanted to reserve all undefined powers to the individual states. The North also wanted internal improvements sponsored by the federal government. This was more roads, railroads, and canals. The South, on the other hand, did not want these projects to be done at all. Also the North wanted to develop a tariff. With a high tariff, it protected the Northern manufacturer. It was bad for the South because a high tariff would not let the south trade its cotton for foreign goods. The North also wanted a good banking and currency system and federal subsidies for shipping and internal improvements. The South felt these were discriminatory and that they favored Northern commercial interests.

The main reason for the Souths secession was the Slavery issue. The South wanted and relied on slaves while the North believed it was morally wrong. The South was going to do anything they could to keep slaves. This was the issue that overshadowed all others. At this time the labor force in the South had about 4 million slaves. These slaves were very valuable to the slaveholding planter class. They were a huge investment to Southerners and if taken away, could mean massive losses to everyone. Slaves were used in the South to help cultivate fields of tobacco, rice, and indigo, as well as many other jobs. The South needed more slaves at this time because they were now growing more cotton then ever due to the invention of the cotton gin. Cotton production with slaves jumped from 178,000 bales in 1810 to over ,841,000 bales in 1860. Within that time period of 50 years the number of slaves also rose from about 1,10,000 to over 4,000,000. The plantation owners in the South had no reason to agree with North's plans for abolishing slavery.

Southerners compared it with the wage-slave system of the North. They said that the slaves were better cared for then the free factory workers in the North. Southerners said that slave owners provided shelter, food, care, and regulation for a race unable to compete in the modern world without proper training. Many Southern preachers proclaimed that slavery was sanctioned in the Bible. But after the American Revolution slavery start to die the North, just as it was becoming more popular in the South. By the time of 1804 seven of the northern most states had abolished slavery. During this time a surge of democratic reform swept the North and West. There were demands for political equality and economic and social advances. The Northerners goals were free public education, better salaries and working conditions for workers, rights for women, and better treatment for criminals. The South felt these views were not important. All of these views eventually led to an attack on the slavery system in the South, and showed opposition to its spread into whatever new territories that were acquired. Northerners said that slavery revoked the human right of being a free person. With all these views the North set out on its quest for the complete abolition of slavery.

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When new territories became available in the West the South wanted to expand and use slavery in the newly acquired territories. But the North opposed to this and wanted to stop the extension of slavery into new territories. The North wanted to limit the number of slave states in the Union. But many Southerners felt that a government dominated by free states could endanger existing slaveholdings. The South wanted to protect their states rights. The first evidence of the Norths actions came in 181 when Missouri asked to be admitted to the Union as a slave state. After months of discussion Congress passed the Missouri Compromise of 180. This compromise was legislative measures that regulated the extension of slavery in the United States for three decades. Now the balance of 11 free states and 11 slave states was in trouble. Maine also applied for statehood in 181, in which it was admitted as a free state. To please the South, slavery would be prohibited forever from Louisiana Purchase territories north of 6° 0. Southern extremists opposed any limit on the extension of slavery, but settled for now. Missouri and Maine were to enter statehood simultaneously to preserve sectional equality in the Senate. For almost a generation this Compromise seemed to settle the conflict between the North and South. But in 1848 the Union acquired a huge piece of territory from Mexico. This opened new opportunities for the spread of slavery for Southerners.

The distribution of these lands in small lots speeded the development of this region, but it was disliked from the South since it aided the free farmer rather than the slaveholding plantation owner. So now Congress passed the Compromise Measures of 1850 during August of 1850. It dealt mainly with the question of whether slavery was to be allowed or prohibited in the regions acquired from Mexico as a result of the Mexican War. This compromise allowed abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia and admission of California as a free state. Another par t of the compromise was the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, which provided for the return of runaway slaves to their masters. But many free states in the Union passed personal liberty laws in an effort to help the slaves escape. Many Northerners set up underground railroads where the runaway slaves could hide and get food and be directed to Canada for freedom.

This angered many Southerners. This compromise also said that the territory east of California given to the United States by Mexico was divided into the territories of New Mexico and Utah, and they were opened to settlement by both slaveholders and antislavery settlers. This measure outdated the Missouri Compromise of 180. All these compromise measures resulted in a gradual intensification of the hostility between the slave and free states. Again another law was passed in 1854. It was called the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It authorized the creation of Kansas and Nebraska, west of Missouri and Iowa and divided by the 40th parallel. It repealed the Missouri Compromise of 180 that had prohibited slavery in the territories north of 6° 0, and stated that the inhabitants of the territories should decide for themselves the legality of slaveholding. The Democratic senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois sponsored this act. He hoped to simplify construction of a transcontinental railroad through these states rather than through the southern part of the country. The removal of the restriction on the expansion of slavery ensured southern support for the bill, which was signed into law by President Franklin Pierce on May 0, 1854. This act split the Democratic Party and destroyed the Whig party also. The northern Whigs joined antislavery Democrats to form the Republican Party in July 1854. A conflict developed in Kansas between proslavery settlers from Missouri and antislavery newcomers who began to move into the territory from the northeastern states. This was what known as Bleeding Kansas. There were also many people in the North known as abolitionist s who made the South look very bad. The abolitionists played a major role in shaping the views of many Northerners. These people were fully against slavery and its expansion and most of the time took matters into their own hands to get their point across. Some of the most famous abolitionists were William Lloyd Garrison of Boston, Wendell Phillips, who in 186 gave up his law practice because he couldnt support the United States Constitution, James G. Birney of Ohio who gathered all anti-slavery forces into one unit called the Liberty Party and Frederick Douglass, who was an escaped slave who became a black editor. The last main conflict that led to succession was during the presidential election of 1860. The newly formed Republican Party nominated Abraham Lincoln on principles that opposed the further expansion of slavery. Now with Lincoln being elected the South really felt that expansionism was being threatened, and because expansion was vital to the survival of slavery they also felt their way of life was being threatened. Because slavery was such an important part of Southern society, the South felt that they could not survive without it. Now they felt there was nothing more they could do. They were convinced that they should make a bid for independence by succeeding rather then face political encirclement. It was all described when a Southern man said We have at last reached that point in our history when it is necessary for the South to withdraw from the Union. This has not been our seeking...but we are bound to accept it for self-preservation. This was officially the end and now the South wanted to s succeed. Lincoln said that succession was illegal and said that he intended to maintain federal possessions in the South.

Southerners hoped the threat of succession would force acceptance of Southern demands, but it did not. Finally the day came on Dec. 0, 1860 when South Carolina adopted an ordinance of succession. The other states to follow and succeed were Mississippi on Jan , 1861, Florida on January 10, Alabama on Jan 11, Georgia on January 1, Louisiana on January 6, and Texas on February 1. On February 4 delegates from all these states met in Montgomery, Alabama where they drafted a constitution for the Confederate States of America. This outraged the North and what was led to the Civil War.

Many different efforts were made to save the Union and prevent a war. James Buchanan believed the Constitution did not allow the North to take any action against the South. An effort was made on February 4th by the Virginia Legislature who called a conference of the states at Washington D.C. Representatives were sent from 7 slave and 14 free states. An amendment was passed saying Congress could never interfere with slavery in the states. But it was not ratified by the necessary number of states and was forgotten when the Civil War began.

The existence of slavery was the central element of the conflict between the North and South. Other problems existed that led to succession but none were as big as the slavery issue. The only way to avoid the war was to abolish slavery but this could not be done because slavery is what kept the South running. But when the South seceded it was said by Abraham Lincoln A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. Because slavery formed two opposing societies, and slavery could never be abolished, the Civil War was inevitable. These were all the reasons why the South seceded from the Union and there was really no other way to avoid succession because the North and South had totally opposing views.

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Anthrax

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"A Dose of Reality for the Health Watchdogs" by Jeffrey Kluger, Anne Berryman, Sally B. Donnelly, Andrew Goldstein, Douglas Waller, and Alice Park illustrates what the Secretary of Health and Human Services is going through presently with Anthrax. Normally, the Secretary of Health and Human Services doesn't deal with events such as war, but in this case Tommy Thompson, Secretary of Health and Human Services has much in that department to deal with. Tommy Thompson has seemed overwhelmed and overtaken by the events of the Anthrax scare. He never thought, when he took office, that anything like this would happen; he told the public he was prepared to handle any biological attacks. His statements turned out to be false.

Even though Thomson did not handle the scare effectively by being prepared; he was ever so lucky. The Anthrax scare was not a large one. There have been eight Anthrax infections and all but one were caught in time. "While HHS, and amalgam of a dozen divisions that deals with everything from aging to drugs, has never been the smoothest-running machine in Washington, so far it has effectively mobilized its resources and overseen the testing of thousands and the treatment of all who have needed it." HHS has also helped to make sure there are enough antibiotics for the Anthrax treatment of Cipro.

The Anthrax situations now could be just a small dose of what could come with a huge bioterrorist attack. The government must try to prevent another bioterrorist attack. The government also needs to put aside more money, two billion to 10 billion dollars, to combat bioterrorism. This money should be used for emergency teams to deal with biological and chemical terrorism. "Thompson likes to boast about HHS's metropolitan medical response system, federal teams in 7 cities that would provide mass immunizations or treatments within 4 hours of a bioterrorist attack. The GAO, however, estimates that only % of the population is within reach of trained first responders, making the need for greater local investment all the more pressing.

Money for local hospital beds will be spent because we are in need of them. Money for producing and stockpiling drugs will be used to treat Anthrax. Cipro, other antibiotics, and vaccines will also be used to protect people from Anthrax or other bioterrorist attacks. Beds in hospitals have been slashed by 40% in recent years. If there was a large Anthrax attack, there would need to be plenty of beds for the people expose to the Anthrax.Order Custom anthrax paper

The CDC is the "heart of the nation's public health system" and it is falling apart. The CDC is way to old. Some of the building were built during World War . These buildings were only supposed to last 5-10 years. "Today the structures are crumbling, with duct tape and patches preventing leaky walls from destroying the state-of-the-art equipment." The Anthrax testing came to a temporary halt when the electrical system quit working. All of these problems need to be fixed and the government should be ready for another Anthrax scare, or a similar situation.

Please note that this sample paper on anthrax is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on anthrax, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on anthrax will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Iconography on Christ as the Good Shepherd in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia

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The mosaic in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia of Christ as the Good Shepherd (Ravenna, Italy, ca.45) has been claimed to be the "finest example of Early Christian mosaic in existence." The balanced composition, rich, vibrant colors, paradisiacal tone, and peaceful theme all contribute to produce a timeless work of art. Truly, as a whole the image is stunning. Successful as it is aesthetically, the mosaic's greatest achievement is found in the iconographical content and value. The artist thoughtfully and skillfully used common pagan symbols to teach of Christ's relationship to his followers.

The Good Shepherd

The image of the Good Shepherd was taken from common, pagan iconography to teach of Christ's guiding role in Christianity . Shepherds and ram bearers were common in art during the years preceding the formal era of early Christian art. They represented a variety of themes including different seasons . These images were common to the wealthy and the poor alike. As the popularity of Christian art rose in the third century, the image of a shepherd tenderly caring for or saving his sheep was quickly adopted and frequently used among Christian artists as a representation of Christ . The image was very success and commonly used because it could easily be interpreted as the Good Shepherd and referred directly to Jesus Christ's teachings .

The image taught clearly and quickly Christ's role as the Savior. Christ as the Good Shepherd has been named by scholars "a metaphor for Christ in relation to his followers." Because of its frequent previous use in pre-Christian art, it was an image that was easily identified and understood. It portrayed the Savior as a leader and teacher that could tenderly relate to the needs of his followers and was personally and intimately involved in their salvation. Christ as the Good Shepherd was often portrayed in the earliest Christian centuries in the catacombs and from Dura Europos where it is the central figure . Those earliest Christians undoubtedly looked often to this image of a loving, personable God and Savior as a source of hope and refuge during their fierce persecution before Constantine's conversion. While, to non-Christians, it was simply another rendering of a pagan theme parallel to Hermes Kriophoros, the calf bearer, to believing and faithful Christians it was a solemn declaration of peace, comfort, and hope through Jesus Christ. Reverend J. Spencer Northcote describes that "a shepherd is…in itself, a natural object and as such may be painted by Pagans and Christians alike; but it was of the very essence of Christian art to represent natural objects as embodying some hidden spiritual association; and surely no image was more calculated to raise the courage and warm the affections of those who were called upon to live in the shadow of perpetual danger, than that of the Good Shepherd who laid down His life for the sheep." The mosaic of the Good Shepherd found in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia was rendered many years after the heavy persecution of the early Christians. In fact, it is thought to be perhaps the last appearance of Christ as the Good Shepherd in early Christian art . When created, the mosaic was founded on a solid establishment of renderings of the same powerful theme that had been repeated for years. Surely, this image served its contemporaries as a reminiscent reminder of its importance and use in early Christian persecution as well as a resplendent, noble proclamation of Christianity's continued faith and trust in the Jesus as their Master and Redeemer.

The Sheep

The six sheep in the mosaic represent the followers of Christ . Often in both the Old and New Testament Christ's followers were referred to as "[his] people and the sheep of [his] pasture." Accordingly, early Christian artists used sheep to humbly symbolize Christ's adherents. Murray describes the sheep in early Christian art as "one of the commonest symbols of the faithful." While sheep also frequently represented Christ's twelve apostles , those of the mosaic found in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia simply represented the faithful Christian community as a whole.

The sheep shown in the mosaic educate the viewer of the role of the followers of Christ. In a symmetrically balanced composition, the sheep also help to focus the full attention of the mosaic on Christ. Each sheep's attention is fixed to the shepherd, thus echoing to the viewer Christ's universal invitation, "Look unto me and be ye saved, all the ends of the earth; for I am God and there is none else." Of significant import is the sheep directly to Jesus' left. It glows as it beams into the shepherd's face. The shepherd gently caresses it with his right hand and shows the warm affection and nurture he offers to all his flock as they draw near to him. The Good Shepherd is shown as the example of a perfect leader and protector. The artist seems to be making a threefold declaration in his depiction of the sheep and their interaction with the shepherd. To the faithful Christians he echoes Peter's comforting words, "For ye were as sheep going astray; but are now returned unto the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls." To the bishops and other clergy of the congregation he urges with Christ, "Feed my lambs…feed my sheep." And, to the unbeliever, those who "have gone astray" and "have turned…to his [their] way," he extends Jesus' promising invitation, "I am the door by me if any man enter in, he shall be saved, and shall go in and out, and find pasture…I am come that they might have life, and that they might have it more abundantly."

The Cross

The cross held by the Good Shepherd symbolizes Christ and emphasizes the significance of his suffering and sacrifice. The cross is, without doubt, the most common and most popular symbol in all Christian art. It predated images of the Crucifixion and continued to be a vital icon through the Middle Ages . Originally, until the third century, the cross was explicitly avoided due to its "shameful association with the Crucifixion." But, a significant, miraculous event helped turn that tide. In a battle with one of his pagan opponents, Constantine had witnessed the sign of the cross in the sky and was promised, "in this sign you will conquer." Constantine gave specific orders regarding his soldiers' display of the symbol and the victory was won. Thereafter, the cross became a celebrated symbol of victory through Christ . The cross is likewise represented in the mosaic of Christ as the Good Shepherd. Yet, instead of a military victory, it is representative of Christ's spiritual victory�his victory over sin and . This theme is momentous to the thesis of the mosaic, namely Christ as the Good Shepherd. It is through that central victorious act that Jesus Christ has all power to lead his followers "to lie down in green pastures" and, in the end, save them. With Christ boldly lifting his cross as a ensign, the artist also reflects his teaching, "But he that is an hireling, and not the shepherd, whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep, and fleeth and the wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the sheep….[But] I am the good shepherd…and I lay down my life for the sheep."

The Robe

The Good Shepherd's robe also represents his sacrifice as well as his divine royalty. This mosaic characterizes an important turning point in early Christian depictions of the Good Shepherd. The shepherd is not shown with a simple tunic and a crook as displayed in numerous earlier catacomb paintings, rather, he is reverentially shown with imperial clothes "a gold dalmatic with blue clavi and a mantle of royal purple, features which testify to a direct influence of the ceremonies and art of the Imperial court." The purple is particularly important, referring directly to "Christ's Passion" and, most specifically, to the purple robe he wore while being mocked and abused by the Roman soldiers . The juxtaposition of that same purple, which represents his suffering, on the robes that represent the imperial of Byzantium is triumphantly powerful. While, at one time he submitted himself to wicked men and suffered and died, he overcame sin and , and now, because of his victory, he is adored by his sheep not only as a king, but an Emperor�"the King of kings, and Lord of lords."

The Image of Christ

The personal image of the Good Shepherd was rendered to help the viewer more easily recognize Christ and His role as Savior. There literally is no evidence indicating the physical appearance of Christ . Isaiah made a bleak reference to Christ's physical attributes when he said, "he hath no form nor comeliness; and when we shall see him, there is no beauty that we should desire him." Yet, it wasn't a lack of description that made the earliest Christian artists cautious in rendering Christ. Murray asserts, "for many years the Jewish revulsion from representations of the Divine affected the first Christians (mostly Jews themselves), and [Christ] was therefore symbolized by such things as the chi-rho monogram, the fish (ichthys), a lamb, a cross." It wasn't until much later that representations of Christ's person began to be used, and when they were used it wasn't in effort to render a portrait of him, rather, to describe, by his image, his character and divine mission. To fully understand the rendering of Christ's image in the mosaic we must "understand that all representations of Christ as the Good Shepherd are merely symbolical of His office, and none produce any lineaments of a true likeness." Christ is shown in the mosaic following the Greek (or Hellenistic) version where he is a young beardless man . His thick dark hair that falls to his shoulders is suggestive of the Greek god Apollo . This physical similarity to Apollo was no happenstance. Christ was thus rendered to teach about his mission. Apollo was the son of Zeus and the god of truth and light. Immediately a common visitor, and even investigators of Christianity would recognize his divine Sonship and relate him to truth. The image would enhance the viewers understanding of Christ because of a Roman background steeped in the belief of Greek gods.

Conclusion

No doubt, the mosaic of Christ as the Good Shepherd in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is an aesthetically beautiful work of art as well as a profound and deeply thought-provoking sermon through its iconography. It was created to testify of Christ and his redeeming role as well as "[remind] men of the rewards promised by Christ to those who follow him and of their own ability, even in this world, to share in the glory of the next; [it made] visible the splendour by which the believing Christian was already surrounded. The whole emphasis…is on life on Christ reigning in heaven; on the eternal happiness promised to his followers." Indeed, it has fulfilled and continues to fulfill it grand purpose in teaching the viewer about Jesus Christ and how to nurture and strengthen a relationship with him.

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Iraq

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Anita Ancic

Essay number three

Iraqi Government, past and present

Arab nationalist issues dominated the agenda that impeded the development of a stable Iraqi government. Factors that brought upon these issues include the British and French control during 10 through 1. In 1 Iraq gained recognition as an Independent state, only to be occupied, once again, by the British regime. Also, just as it seems that control was given to the small country of Iraq, imperialism issues arose as powerful and more stable nations gained control with intentions of repression.

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During the 10's and the 140's, the leading figure in Iraq politics, by mean of the monarchy, was Nuri al-Said. Under his rule Iraq joined the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) in 155. Iraq then became the only Arab nation to do so, putting itself at odds with other members of the Arab League. It had seemed that Iraq had greater plans then the ones imposed by other nations, or the Arab League. These brave actions by the country that wanted more resulted in the kings, Nuri al-Said, and other royal family members assasinations on July 14, 158.

The proceeding decades were marked by strict regimes and political instability. The government consisted of General Abd al-Kanrim Qasim and his league of Free Officers. Qasim's leadership ended in 16 with his assignation by the Free Officers that were seeking absolute control and a dictatorship nation. Colonel Abd al-salam Arif succeeded Qasim and soon enough, he was overthrown in 168 by the Baathist Ahmad-Hassan al-Bakr. The cycle continued and the most recent and current leader Saddam Hussein deposed Bakr in 17.

From the context of Iraq's history, people and politics it is obvious to see a vicious cycle of ousting leaders, only to be replaced with a favorable opinion. Another perception is to think of the long and bitter imperial control and local oppostion that has been an issue all along. Feelings of anger and militancy go back to post World War I and the bloody repression nad seizure of Iraq by the British. These feelings were later magnified by the way other countries perceived Iraq and the way Iraq was held down to stop and slow production. Adding on to this list is the United States support for Isreal and the punishing United Sates-United Kingdom to United Nationd sanctions. From those pasr neagative experiences of the past , the picture is a made clearer. the reason why democracy is not a familiare word to the Iraqi people is a concept that I now understand a greater extent. Yet, it is a the power of democratic ideas has yet to liberate the people and evoke historys untold story.

Please note that this sample paper on Iraq is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Iraq, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Iraq will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Essay Plan for Marketing - Pricing

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What Is Pricing?

- Definition of price (by Kotler) The amount of money charged for a product or service or the sum of values consumers exchange for the benefits of having or using the product or service.

- Pricing is simply the process of placing a price on a product or service.

- All companies must set prices on their products or services.

- These may come in many forms

- You pay, rent, tuition, doctor's fee's, tariff's, interest, toll, premium, salary, commission, wage, income taxes, etc etc.

- Historically, buyers choice has mainly been affected by price.

- Today, however, the role of non-price factors has become increasingly important and continues to do so.

- Price is the only element in the marketing mix that represents revenue; everything else is grouped into the elements of cost.

- Even though pricing is seen by many companies as the number-one problem faced by marketing executives, it is badly handled and often is ignored and no-longer matches the current conditions that the price should reflect.

- A company sets a pricing structure, not a single price, and the structure changes as each product moves throughout its life cycle.

- A successful company should change the pricing structure based upon changing costs, consumer demand and account for variations is buyers and situations.

Factors To Consider When Setting Prices

- It is important, before setting prices, to decide on a strategy for a product

- If a organization has selected its target market and positioning carefully, then its marketing-mix strategy, including price, will be fairly straight forward.

- Pricing strategy is largely determined by past decisions on marketing positioning.

- The clearer a company is about its goals, the simpler it becomes to set price.

- Some objectives and goals.

- Survival becomes the main objective of a company if they are troubled by too much capacity, heavy competition or sudden changes in consumer demands. To combat this, the companies usually resort to setting a low price even setting a price below costs in order to survive.

- Current Profit Maximisation A lot of companies want to set a price that will maximise current profits. They estimate what demand and costs will be at different prices and choose the price that will produce the maximum current profit.

- Market-Share Leadership other companies want to obtain the dominant market share. To become the market-share-leader many companies will make their prices as low as possible.

- Product-Quality Leadership A company might decide it wants to have the highest-quality products on the market. This however, usually entails charging a higher price to charge for the higher quality and extensive R&D.

- Other Objectives Companies can set prices low to prevent competition from entering the market or set prices at competitors' levels to stabilise the market. Prices can be reduced to create rapid excitement, prices can be adjusted to increase the sales of other products in a range.

Costs

- Costs set the ground for the price that a company can charge for its product.

- When setting a base price, the company takes in to consideration all costs for producing, distributing and selling the product and also gives a certain amount of flexibility for effort and risk.

- Most companies would work quite hard today to become 'low cost' producers in their industries.

Types of Costs

- There are two types of costs, Fixed Costs and Variable Costs.

- Fixed Costs are costs that do not change at all with production or sales level, ie/ bills, rent, salaries, interest. They continue no matter what the production level is.

- Variable Costs vary directly with the level of production. If we make and sell fewer of a product, then we have lower variable costs.

- Total Costs are the sum of the fixed and variable costs for any given level of production.

People Involved With Pricing

- Management must decide who within the company should set prices.

- In small companies, the top management often sets prices.

- However, in larger companies, pricing is typically handled by divisional or product line managers.

- Others who have an influence on pricing include sales managers, production managers and accounts.

External Factors

Market and Demand

- Costs set the lower limits of prices, whereas the market and demand set the upper limit.

Pricing In Different Types Of Markets

- Pure Competition a market in which many buyers and sellers trade in a uniform commodity no single buyer or seller has much effort on the going market price.

- Monopolistic Competition a market in which many buyers and sellers trade over a range of prices rather than a single market price.

- Oligopolistic Competition a market in which there are a few sellers who are highly sensitive to each other's pricing and marketing strategies.

- Pure Monopoly A market in which there is a single seller it may be a government monopoly, a private, regulated monopoly or a private non-regulated monopoly.

Consumer Perceptions Of Price And Value

- What it comes down to is that the consumer will decide whether a product's price is right.

- Therefore, when pricing, the company must consider consumer perceptions of price and how these perceptions affect consumers' buying decisions.

- Pricing decisions, like other marketing-mix decisions, must be buyer-oriented.

- In order to be effective with buyer-oriented pricing, the company must have an understanding of the value that consumers place on the benefits they receive from the product and then setting a price that fits this value.

General Pricing Approaches

- The price the comp[any charges will be between one that is too low to produce a profit and one that is too high to produce any demand.

- There are many different methods of pricing.

Cost-Based Pricing

- What is it? Adding a standard mark-up to the cost of the product.

- Mark-ups vary considerably among different goods.

- They are usually smallest on staples such as bread and milk. (Same price anywhere)

- High on products such as perishables and seasonable items to cover risk of not selling etc.

Breakeven Analysis And Target Profit Pricing.

- Is when a company tries to determine the price at which it will break even or make the target profit it is seeking.

- Target pricing is used by many importers as a way of setting prices to gain a profit on investment.

Value-Based Pricing

- Setting price based on consumer perceptions of value rather than on the seller's cost.

- Price is set to match the perceived value.

- Using a simple example like food. You could pay $5.50 for sushi in a supermarket, $7.00 at a food hall, $.50 at a local restaurant, $15.00 at an upmarket Japanese restaurant and $.00 at an international hotel.

- Even if the original product is exactly the same, the perceived value changes because of the ambiance and service of each place.

- So, comparing, cost based pricing is product driven, deciding to match the price with the cost of a product and mark-ups, value-based is the opposite. The company sets its price based on what the consumer thinks it should be.

Competition-Based Pricing

- There are three types of competition-based pricing.

Economic-Value pricing

- For many individual products, the costs perceived by customers extend well beyond the price charged.

- This approach enables industrial firms to move away from price comparisons to differentiating their products on the basis of economic value to customers.

Going-Rate Pricing

- In going-rate pricing, the company bases its price largely on competitors' prices, with less attention paid to its own costs or demand.

- So the company would more-or-less charge the same amount for their products or services as its major competitors would.

Sealed-bid/Tenders

- Competition-based pricing is also used when companies bid for jobs. Using the sealed-bid method, a company bases its prices on what it thinks it competitors will price rather than its own consideration. (ie, bidding for a contract with other companies.)

Relationship Pricing

1. Special Relationship. at this level , supplier and customer share a special relationship. There is no significant change in the flow of money between organizations, but they work together to reduce costs and time while increasing the overall quality.

. At the Enrichment Level, deeper relationships are formed that take advantage of interactivity. This pricing strategy is effective when customers are wary of innovative approaches, which appear risky and are not yet proven.

. Shared Risk And Reward level ties the supplier and customer closely together in an alliance, or even joint venture, in which both the risks and rewards are shared. A high order of trust, shared ethics and corporate values are required for success.

New-Product Pricing Strategies

- Pricing an innovative product

Market-Skimming pricing

- Many companies that invent new products set high prices to 'skim' revenues layer by layer from the market. (Sony is a prime example of using this)

- Only effective under certain conditions

Market-Penetration Pricing

- Rather than setting a high initial price to skim small but profitable market segments, other companies set a low initial price in order to penetrate the market quickly and deeply to generate excitement and to attract a large number of buyers quickly.

- So basically, charging low prices to attract a higher volume.

- Microsoft uses this strategy.

Pricing An Imitative New Product

- A company that plans to develop an imitative new product faces a product-positioning problem. It must decide where to position the product on quality and price.

- So, there are different positions in which you can have a product, so, you can have a high quality product at low price and attract a large share very quickly but lose profits, so its all relative in the balance of profits and market share.

Product-Line Pricing

- Setting the price steps between various products in a product line based on cost differences between the products, customer evaluations of different features and competitors' prices.

Optional Product/Service Pricing

- The pricing of optional or accessory products along with a main product.

- ie/ Laser Lxi Hatch manual model advertised $1 0 to pull people into the showrooms. Then fill the showrooms with option-loaded cars. A typical Laser Hatch automatic with shields, alloy wheels, bonnet protector, rear spoiler and central locking comes to $ 10. With all extras it can go as high as $7 0.

Captive Product/Service Pricing

- The pricing of products that must be used along with a main product, such as blades for a razor and film for a camera.

- Basically trapping people into having to buy your product. Nivea for men and Philishave came up with a razor, which has Nivea Gel Packs in it while you shave. If the product is to be used how advertised, then it requires constant purchasing of the extra gel packs.

By-Product Pricing

- Simply, setting a price for by-products in order to make the main products price more competitive.

- Meat processing plants selling off-cuts and offel to Pet Food Companies.

Product-Bundle Pricing

- Combining several products and offering the bundle at a reduced price.

- Airlines offering passengers Car-Rental discounts and freebies with ticket purchases.

Price-Adjustment Strategies

- Companies usually adjust their basic prices to account for various customer differences and changing situations.

- There are seven commonly known price-adjustment strategies.

Discount Pricing And Allowances Reducing prices to reward customer responses such as paying early or promoting the product or service.

Segmented Pricing Adjusting prices to allow for differences in customers, services, products or locations.

Psychological Pricing Adjusting prices for psychological effect.

Promotional Pricing Temporarily reducing prices to increase short-run sales.

Value Pricing Adjusting prices to offer the right combination of quality and service at a fair price.

Geographical Pricing Adjusting prices to account for the geographic location of customers.

International Pricing Adjusting prices for international markets.

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Intoduction "too much of a good thing"

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Greg Crister in his article Too much of a good thing tries to bring a valid point of stigmatising overeating in children. The author strongly advocates parental advice in a childs diet. Obesity according to the author is an epidemic which is engulfing the youth of the nearly all the major countries.It is high time that this problem was taken care of .

Researches have shown that majority of children do not know when hey are full (pg 46). So it the resomsibility of the parents to supervise a childs diet , and it is also seen that children are the most responsive towards dietry advice. So a child must be made aware of his wrong eating habbits in a kind of way that he does not suffer for low self-esteem that is that he should not be critisized for his obesity rather he should be stigmatised for his overeating.The plathora of cheap and eaisly avilable fast food resturants also hold a mojor share in destroying the childs sense of nutritional foods .

The authors view that obesity is becoming an epidemic is absolutely valid and is based on solid reasonig , even the UN proclaims that obesity is the dominant unmet global health issue . The authors views that parents play a key role in a childs eating habbits and of stigmatising a childs bad eating habbit and not his overweight is perfectly reasonably as it will let the child know his wrong doing without really denting a childs self esteem(pg 46), this has even be proved by the research which show that majority of the children do not konw when they are full(pg 46) . The point about the chain of fast foods and how it is spoiling the youths health is appropriate as they offer junk food for cheap prices without looking into the nutritional side of the products.

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Overall I am in total harmony with the authors article. I think that the authir has very effectively conveyed his message without hurting or unnesessarily critisizing anyone.The only weakness of the article is that it lacks the punch, punch that is the author should have mentioned the things with a little more authority.

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Anthem Project

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When I knew that our class had to do an art piece symbolizing a quote in the book Anthem I had a ton of ideas. I put them all into one piece. First I drew what I thought my idea was and then I tried to find a quote for it. It was easier for me to do that then finding the quote first then doing the art. So I found the quote that suited my drawing. Next, I bought some Sculpey (America's #1 clay) and then I went home and did my sculpture. I found a spherical jar and put clay around it to make it look like a world then I made people, the top half of their bodies coming out of the earth, and then I made a small rectangle like pedestal that the guy is holding and put a small word (ego) in magazine clippings on it. I wanted to do something else to it so I made a hand holding the earth. I then baked it and when it cooled I painted it all white. I put some color into it by painting the guys' hair, green and the girls' tie, red and the nails on the hand, black.

All those things have a symbolic meaning… well most of them do. The quote is "My hands… My spirit… My sky… My forest… This earth of mine…." I took some of the meaning literal in a sense when I made the hand and the earth but when I made the hand holding the earth it kind of meant that the earth was his, hence "This earth of mine…." . Some of the other things like why the people looked so modern and why I painted them (green and red) were because 1) I didn't know how to make the guys' hair look real from that time, ) I thought the green spiked hair, the red tie, the bracelets, the belts, studs and chain kind of represent individuality nowadays (a lot of people do that kind of stuff just because they want to be with the crowd but a lot of hard core people really did start the fad of, "I don't care what people think about me" so they dress and do whatever they want.) The guy holding the word "ego" is supposed to represent him finding individuality and the "Unspeakable Word" and all the other words, like I and me and mine, etc. The people coming out of the world are supposed to symbolize them coming into the real world and finding out all that stuff. All the other stuff I pretty much did just because. All of this took me until about 00 in the morning on Monday night. I don't know why I just didn't finish it the next night but it was like I couldn't stop so I didn't come to school the next day because I was sooooo tired and ended up missing I day of school because I was sooooo tired I felt sick. But anyways I finished it and that's the end. I hope you like it.

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