Iraq

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Anita Ancic

Essay number three

Iraqi Government, past and present

Arab nationalist issues dominated the agenda that impeded the development of a stable Iraqi government. Factors that brought upon these issues include the British and French control during 10 through 1. In 1 Iraq gained recognition as an Independent state, only to be occupied, once again, by the British regime. Also, just as it seems that control was given to the small country of Iraq, imperialism issues arose as powerful and more stable nations gained control with intentions of repression.

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During the 10's and the 140's, the leading figure in Iraq politics, by mean of the monarchy, was Nuri al-Said. Under his rule Iraq joined the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) in 155. Iraq then became the only Arab nation to do so, putting itself at odds with other members of the Arab League. It had seemed that Iraq had greater plans then the ones imposed by other nations, or the Arab League. These brave actions by the country that wanted more resulted in the kings, Nuri al-Said, and other royal family members assasinations on July 14, 158.

The proceeding decades were marked by strict regimes and political instability. The government consisted of General Abd al-Kanrim Qasim and his league of Free Officers. Qasim's leadership ended in 16 with his assignation by the Free Officers that were seeking absolute control and a dictatorship nation. Colonel Abd al-salam Arif succeeded Qasim and soon enough, he was overthrown in 168 by the Baathist Ahmad-Hassan al-Bakr. The cycle continued and the most recent and current leader Saddam Hussein deposed Bakr in 17.

From the context of Iraq's history, people and politics it is obvious to see a vicious cycle of ousting leaders, only to be replaced with a favorable opinion. Another perception is to think of the long and bitter imperial control and local oppostion that has been an issue all along. Feelings of anger and militancy go back to post World War I and the bloody repression nad seizure of Iraq by the British. These feelings were later magnified by the way other countries perceived Iraq and the way Iraq was held down to stop and slow production. Adding on to this list is the United States support for Isreal and the punishing United Sates-United Kingdom to United Nationd sanctions. From those pasr neagative experiences of the past , the picture is a made clearer. the reason why democracy is not a familiare word to the Iraqi people is a concept that I now understand a greater extent. Yet, it is a the power of democratic ideas has yet to liberate the people and evoke historys untold story.

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Essay Plan for Marketing - Pricing

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What Is Pricing?

- Definition of price (by Kotler) The amount of money charged for a product or service or the sum of values consumers exchange for the benefits of having or using the product or service.

- Pricing is simply the process of placing a price on a product or service.

- All companies must set prices on their products or services.

- These may come in many forms

- You pay, rent, tuition, doctor's fee's, tariff's, interest, toll, premium, salary, commission, wage, income taxes, etc etc.

- Historically, buyers choice has mainly been affected by price.

- Today, however, the role of non-price factors has become increasingly important and continues to do so.

- Price is the only element in the marketing mix that represents revenue; everything else is grouped into the elements of cost.

- Even though pricing is seen by many companies as the number-one problem faced by marketing executives, it is badly handled and often is ignored and no-longer matches the current conditions that the price should reflect.

- A company sets a pricing structure, not a single price, and the structure changes as each product moves throughout its life cycle.

- A successful company should change the pricing structure based upon changing costs, consumer demand and account for variations is buyers and situations.

Factors To Consider When Setting Prices

- It is important, before setting prices, to decide on a strategy for a product

- If a organization has selected its target market and positioning carefully, then its marketing-mix strategy, including price, will be fairly straight forward.

- Pricing strategy is largely determined by past decisions on marketing positioning.

- The clearer a company is about its goals, the simpler it becomes to set price.

- Some objectives and goals.

- Survival becomes the main objective of a company if they are troubled by too much capacity, heavy competition or sudden changes in consumer demands. To combat this, the companies usually resort to setting a low price even setting a price below costs in order to survive.

- Current Profit Maximisation A lot of companies want to set a price that will maximise current profits. They estimate what demand and costs will be at different prices and choose the price that will produce the maximum current profit.

- Market-Share Leadership other companies want to obtain the dominant market share. To become the market-share-leader many companies will make their prices as low as possible.

- Product-Quality Leadership A company might decide it wants to have the highest-quality products on the market. This however, usually entails charging a higher price to charge for the higher quality and extensive R&D.

- Other Objectives Companies can set prices low to prevent competition from entering the market or set prices at competitors' levels to stabilise the market. Prices can be reduced to create rapid excitement, prices can be adjusted to increase the sales of other products in a range.

Costs

- Costs set the ground for the price that a company can charge for its product.

- When setting a base price, the company takes in to consideration all costs for producing, distributing and selling the product and also gives a certain amount of flexibility for effort and risk.

- Most companies would work quite hard today to become 'low cost' producers in their industries.

Types of Costs

- There are two types of costs, Fixed Costs and Variable Costs.

- Fixed Costs are costs that do not change at all with production or sales level, ie/ bills, rent, salaries, interest. They continue no matter what the production level is.

- Variable Costs vary directly with the level of production. If we make and sell fewer of a product, then we have lower variable costs.

- Total Costs are the sum of the fixed and variable costs for any given level of production.

People Involved With Pricing

- Management must decide who within the company should set prices.

- In small companies, the top management often sets prices.

- However, in larger companies, pricing is typically handled by divisional or product line managers.

- Others who have an influence on pricing include sales managers, production managers and accounts.

External Factors

Market and Demand

- Costs set the lower limits of prices, whereas the market and demand set the upper limit.

Pricing In Different Types Of Markets

- Pure Competition a market in which many buyers and sellers trade in a uniform commodity no single buyer or seller has much effort on the going market price.

- Monopolistic Competition a market in which many buyers and sellers trade over a range of prices rather than a single market price.

- Oligopolistic Competition a market in which there are a few sellers who are highly sensitive to each other's pricing and marketing strategies.

- Pure Monopoly A market in which there is a single seller it may be a government monopoly, a private, regulated monopoly or a private non-regulated monopoly.

Consumer Perceptions Of Price And Value

- What it comes down to is that the consumer will decide whether a product's price is right.

- Therefore, when pricing, the company must consider consumer perceptions of price and how these perceptions affect consumers' buying decisions.

- Pricing decisions, like other marketing-mix decisions, must be buyer-oriented.

- In order to be effective with buyer-oriented pricing, the company must have an understanding of the value that consumers place on the benefits they receive from the product and then setting a price that fits this value.

General Pricing Approaches

- The price the comp[any charges will be between one that is too low to produce a profit and one that is too high to produce any demand.

- There are many different methods of pricing.

Cost-Based Pricing

- What is it? Adding a standard mark-up to the cost of the product.

- Mark-ups vary considerably among different goods.

- They are usually smallest on staples such as bread and milk. (Same price anywhere)

- High on products such as perishables and seasonable items to cover risk of not selling etc.

Breakeven Analysis And Target Profit Pricing.

- Is when a company tries to determine the price at which it will break even or make the target profit it is seeking.

- Target pricing is used by many importers as a way of setting prices to gain a profit on investment.

Value-Based Pricing

- Setting price based on consumer perceptions of value rather than on the seller's cost.

- Price is set to match the perceived value.

- Using a simple example like food. You could pay $5.50 for sushi in a supermarket, $7.00 at a food hall, $.50 at a local restaurant, $15.00 at an upmarket Japanese restaurant and $.00 at an international hotel.

- Even if the original product is exactly the same, the perceived value changes because of the ambiance and service of each place.

- So, comparing, cost based pricing is product driven, deciding to match the price with the cost of a product and mark-ups, value-based is the opposite. The company sets its price based on what the consumer thinks it should be.

Competition-Based Pricing

- There are three types of competition-based pricing.

Economic-Value pricing

- For many individual products, the costs perceived by customers extend well beyond the price charged.

- This approach enables industrial firms to move away from price comparisons to differentiating their products on the basis of economic value to customers.

Going-Rate Pricing

- In going-rate pricing, the company bases its price largely on competitors' prices, with less attention paid to its own costs or demand.

- So the company would more-or-less charge the same amount for their products or services as its major competitors would.

Sealed-bid/Tenders

- Competition-based pricing is also used when companies bid for jobs. Using the sealed-bid method, a company bases its prices on what it thinks it competitors will price rather than its own consideration. (ie, bidding for a contract with other companies.)

Relationship Pricing

1. Special Relationship. at this level , supplier and customer share a special relationship. There is no significant change in the flow of money between organizations, but they work together to reduce costs and time while increasing the overall quality.

. At the Enrichment Level, deeper relationships are formed that take advantage of interactivity. This pricing strategy is effective when customers are wary of innovative approaches, which appear risky and are not yet proven.

. Shared Risk And Reward level ties the supplier and customer closely together in an alliance, or even joint venture, in which both the risks and rewards are shared. A high order of trust, shared ethics and corporate values are required for success.

New-Product Pricing Strategies

- Pricing an innovative product

Market-Skimming pricing

- Many companies that invent new products set high prices to 'skim' revenues layer by layer from the market. (Sony is a prime example of using this)

- Only effective under certain conditions

Market-Penetration Pricing

- Rather than setting a high initial price to skim small but profitable market segments, other companies set a low initial price in order to penetrate the market quickly and deeply to generate excitement and to attract a large number of buyers quickly.

- So basically, charging low prices to attract a higher volume.

- Microsoft uses this strategy.

Pricing An Imitative New Product

- A company that plans to develop an imitative new product faces a product-positioning problem. It must decide where to position the product on quality and price.

- So, there are different positions in which you can have a product, so, you can have a high quality product at low price and attract a large share very quickly but lose profits, so its all relative in the balance of profits and market share.

Product-Line Pricing

- Setting the price steps between various products in a product line based on cost differences between the products, customer evaluations of different features and competitors' prices.

Optional Product/Service Pricing

- The pricing of optional or accessory products along with a main product.

- ie/ Laser Lxi Hatch manual model advertised $1 0 to pull people into the showrooms. Then fill the showrooms with option-loaded cars. A typical Laser Hatch automatic with shields, alloy wheels, bonnet protector, rear spoiler and central locking comes to $ 10. With all extras it can go as high as $7 0.

Captive Product/Service Pricing

- The pricing of products that must be used along with a main product, such as blades for a razor and film for a camera.

- Basically trapping people into having to buy your product. Nivea for men and Philishave came up with a razor, which has Nivea Gel Packs in it while you shave. If the product is to be used how advertised, then it requires constant purchasing of the extra gel packs.

By-Product Pricing

- Simply, setting a price for by-products in order to make the main products price more competitive.

- Meat processing plants selling off-cuts and offel to Pet Food Companies.

Product-Bundle Pricing

- Combining several products and offering the bundle at a reduced price.

- Airlines offering passengers Car-Rental discounts and freebies with ticket purchases.

Price-Adjustment Strategies

- Companies usually adjust their basic prices to account for various customer differences and changing situations.

- There are seven commonly known price-adjustment strategies.

Discount Pricing And Allowances Reducing prices to reward customer responses such as paying early or promoting the product or service.

Segmented Pricing Adjusting prices to allow for differences in customers, services, products or locations.

Psychological Pricing Adjusting prices for psychological effect.

Promotional Pricing Temporarily reducing prices to increase short-run sales.

Value Pricing Adjusting prices to offer the right combination of quality and service at a fair price.

Geographical Pricing Adjusting prices to account for the geographic location of customers.

International Pricing Adjusting prices for international markets.

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Intoduction "too much of a good thing"

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Greg Crister in his article Too much of a good thing tries to bring a valid point of stigmatising overeating in children. The author strongly advocates parental advice in a childs diet. Obesity according to the author is an epidemic which is engulfing the youth of the nearly all the major countries.It is high time that this problem was taken care of .

Researches have shown that majority of children do not know when hey are full (pg 46). So it the resomsibility of the parents to supervise a childs diet , and it is also seen that children are the most responsive towards dietry advice. So a child must be made aware of his wrong eating habbits in a kind of way that he does not suffer for low self-esteem that is that he should not be critisized for his obesity rather he should be stigmatised for his overeating.The plathora of cheap and eaisly avilable fast food resturants also hold a mojor share in destroying the childs sense of nutritional foods .

The authors view that obesity is becoming an epidemic is absolutely valid and is based on solid reasonig , even the UN proclaims that obesity is the dominant unmet global health issue . The authors views that parents play a key role in a childs eating habbits and of stigmatising a childs bad eating habbit and not his overweight is perfectly reasonably as it will let the child know his wrong doing without really denting a childs self esteem(pg 46), this has even be proved by the research which show that majority of the children do not konw when they are full(pg 46) . The point about the chain of fast foods and how it is spoiling the youths health is appropriate as they offer junk food for cheap prices without looking into the nutritional side of the products.

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Overall I am in total harmony with the authors article. I think that the authir has very effectively conveyed his message without hurting or unnesessarily critisizing anyone.The only weakness of the article is that it lacks the punch, punch that is the author should have mentioned the things with a little more authority.

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Anthem Project

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When I knew that our class had to do an art piece symbolizing a quote in the book Anthem I had a ton of ideas. I put them all into one piece. First I drew what I thought my idea was and then I tried to find a quote for it. It was easier for me to do that then finding the quote first then doing the art. So I found the quote that suited my drawing. Next, I bought some Sculpey (America's #1 clay) and then I went home and did my sculpture. I found a spherical jar and put clay around it to make it look like a world then I made people, the top half of their bodies coming out of the earth, and then I made a small rectangle like pedestal that the guy is holding and put a small word (ego) in magazine clippings on it. I wanted to do something else to it so I made a hand holding the earth. I then baked it and when it cooled I painted it all white. I put some color into it by painting the guys' hair, green and the girls' tie, red and the nails on the hand, black.

All those things have a symbolic meaning… well most of them do. The quote is "My hands… My spirit… My sky… My forest… This earth of mine…." I took some of the meaning literal in a sense when I made the hand and the earth but when I made the hand holding the earth it kind of meant that the earth was his, hence "This earth of mine…." . Some of the other things like why the people looked so modern and why I painted them (green and red) were because 1) I didn't know how to make the guys' hair look real from that time, ) I thought the green spiked hair, the red tie, the bracelets, the belts, studs and chain kind of represent individuality nowadays (a lot of people do that kind of stuff just because they want to be with the crowd but a lot of hard core people really did start the fad of, "I don't care what people think about me" so they dress and do whatever they want.) The guy holding the word "ego" is supposed to represent him finding individuality and the "Unspeakable Word" and all the other words, like I and me and mine, etc. The people coming out of the world are supposed to symbolize them coming into the real world and finding out all that stuff. All the other stuff I pretty much did just because. All of this took me until about 00 in the morning on Monday night. I don't know why I just didn't finish it the next night but it was like I couldn't stop so I didn't come to school the next day because I was sooooo tired and ended up missing I day of school because I was sooooo tired I felt sick. But anyways I finished it and that's the end. I hope you like it.

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Death be not proud

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We were asked to choose a book dealing with death, dying, and mourning and analyze it using what we have learned in class and in our text. I chose to read "Death Be Not Proud" a memoir, by John Gunther because it deals with a true to life struggle with cancer of the brain. This cancer occurs in a boy who is only seventeen when it kills him. The book is his fathers memoir of his brave, spirited and persistent young sons struggle through it all and his remarkable will to survive. It also goes through many things that we covered in class such as the funeral process and rituals people may go through.

John Gunther Jr. was born on November 14, 1 and led a very fulfilling life all the way up until his death. John was a very intelligent teen who loved school and making his parents proud. He was also the type of person who never thought of himself and put everyone ahead of him. Johnny was very much involved in his studies and was always up for creating new ideas in the fields of chemistry and physics. He was also a wonderful artist as well as a good musician who played the violin, and was editor of his schools paper. Johnny's only dream in life was to graduate high school and get accepted into Harvard.

His plans for the future were all put to a halt on the day of April 5, 146. What he thought to be just a stiff neck turned out to be a brain tumor that would forever alter his life. The neurologist told Johnny's parents about his condition and they agreed not to tell him how serious it was. When they first operated on Johnny's skull they said that the tumor was the size of an orange and they were able to remove half of it, which led to a quick recovery. He was determined to get out of the hospital because he didn't want to miss any school and wanted to get his work done. After the surgery Johnny was performing well and the doctors were surprised. Johnny went on to write a letter to Albert Einstein and was giving him ideas about the law of gravitation. He was always putting his ideas to work.

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Johnny unlike others bragged about his disease. The minute Putnam, one of his doctors, told him what he had he picked up the phone and called people to tell them that they drilled holes in his head and that he had a spinal tap. To me I don't know why anyone would do such a thing but it is probably due to the fact that he is scared and doesn't know the truth about what is going on. The doctors first diagnosed Johnny with an astrocytoma, which is comparatively benign, but then it worsened into an astroblastoma undergoing transformation. Johnny's father wasn't to sure about his condition so he did research on it to find out more about the effects of a brain tumor. What he read was that his condition now was somewhat OK, but if it transformed into something with the prefix glio, it would be deadly. The one question that his mother and father were asking themselves was how he got this terrible disease and why. They felt as though reason itself was being destroyed by unreason. They were also skeptical about the future of their son but were strong not only for themselves, but for Johnny. They went on to tell Johnny that the tumor was dead and that he was feeling the effects of the healing. Johnny knowing that he was somewhat ill but recovering wrote a prayer called the "Unbelievers Prayer." This was unusual because he never prayed or was very religious. This situation is somewhat normal because as people become ill, nomatter what their beliefs, they usually turn to prayer. It makes them feel better and it is a way for them to get their feelings out instead of holding them in.

As time went by, Johnny's disease was getting worse and was transformed into a glioblastomatas, which is deadly. Johnny started to become weak especially on his left side and his eyesight started to deteriorate. He was now going for x-ray therapy and was scared because he new he had something more serious than he thought. He tried to look in the dictionary to find out exactly what he had but much to his surprise he couldn't find it. His parents did everything they could to hide Johnny's true disease from him. I often wonder why they made this decision. Is it because his mother and father may feel as though Johnny won't be able to handle the truth? We really don't know because they don't tell the reader.

Johnny's doctors went on to tell his parents that he only had a few months or so left to live while other doctors said there were things they could try to prolong his life. This was always a problem for the Gunther family because Johnny had a total of twenty-three doctors so it made things very confusing. They decided to try some of the doctor's suggestions and the first one was mustard therapy. This therapy was designed to attack the tumor cells in Johnny's body. It worked for a period of time but the reactions deteriorated so they tried something new. The next step was the Gerson Diet. This was designed by one of Johnny's doctors and was a diet that is potassium free and sodium rich. After a while Johnny was upset with all of the treatment they were giving him and especially the diet because he couldn't eat what he wanted to. As time went by the diet seemed to be helping and his parents thought that he was going to recover. Through all of this, Johnny never gave up on anything. He still did what he could and always wanted to keep up with his schoolwork. He also still joked about his tumor because to him it was going away. As the days progressed, Johnny's physical status started to change. He began to sway alot, lost half of his eyesight in each eye, and was dazed due to the poison from the bump. Due to his worsening condition, he was told he could no longer attend Deerfield, his current school, and this greatly disappointed him.

The bump on Johnny's head was drained again and to everyone surprise the tumor had left. There were no more bumps. The miracle had happened! February of 147 started well and nobody knew how or why but Johnny was back on his feet again and as vibrant and alive as ever. He was able to walk again and do the things he used to with no hesitations. Johnny was glad that the tumor was gone but told his father that if the tumor was to come out again it would be for the last time, and he was right. For a short period of time he was "cancer free" then to everyone's surprise the tumor was back and he sharply worsened. The bump started to get bigger and bigger and on February 1, amnesia hit. Frances, his mother, had to help him jog his memory and was hoping it was only temporary. Johnny would forget what happened the day before and even the year and date. Frances came to realize that the amnesia attacks only came when he noticed the doctors were worried about him. As time went by his amnesia got better and he got used to being around the doctors without acting up.

Johnny completed his courses at Deerfield and graduated from there on June 14, fourteen months after he was last in school. He then went on to take the entrance test at Harvard and was so happy he got that far he said that he never felt better. Due to Johnny's worsening condition, his father told him that he got into Harvard and he was estatic. Time passed and Johnny still pushed to the maximum to do everything he wanted. He even taught his dad how to play chess by writing down the directions. He never gave up on life and always kept himself active, which I admired very much.

Then the most terrifying moment occurred. His brain started to hemorrhage and this was it. The doctors new that Johnny's time had come. When the ambulance arrived at their house and took him to the hospital everything went wrong. The emergency door was locked and when they needed the doctors most, they were nowhere to be found. The moment they dreaded had now happened. After fifteen months of dealing with this disease, Johnny died in his sleep at 110 p.m. on June 0, 147. Frances reached out for him and held his hand while saying goodbye. His parents and doctors were happy that Johnny didn't die painfully, like other people in his condition, and were also happy that they were able to prolong his life as long as they did.

Johnny's deathbed scene was greatly affected by the way that he died because he was terminally ill and in and out of the hospital. As Johnny's life came to an end, he let out three gasps of air and started to tremble. His lips then became blue and his hands cold. His father said that "like a thief, Death took him." Since Johnny was never actually told he was going to die, he had no control over his death but much control over the way he decided to go through life. The doctors had alot of influence on his parents about choosing not to tell him and by doing all they could to prolong his life. For Johnny, dying didn't begin when he was diagnosed, but rather when the action of death actually occurred.

The effects that death had on the main characters were expected. This was because the family was well aware of what could and would happen, but since Johnny never knew how serious a condition he had his death was a happy one. When he died, he died thinking he was accepted to Harvard and knowing how much his family loved him. Since Johnny didn't know he was dying we really weren't presented with his meaning of death. I feel as though Johnny would have thought death to be a new beginning because he seemed as though he always welcomed new ideas.

In this story dying was presented as realistic as could be. It was shown to be a time of struggling, but throughout Johnny's downfall he was still very much alive. He did everything he could and surprised everyone with his persistency. He also shocked his doctors because of his will to live as long as he did. Even though he went through alot of rough times, he never gave up on making people happy and doing things for himself. I enjoyed the fact that the father presented the bad times as well as all of the good because it shows how realistic his illness was but it didn't hold him back.

The only thing I really had a problem with was the fact that they decided not to tell Johnny how serious a condition he had. I think people have the right to know whether or not they are going to die and even though he was only seventeen, he was more than capable enough to handle the news. I felt he showed himself to be a very strong person. If he knew that he was going to die or knew about the seriousness of his condition, he could have been able to do last minute things and have more control over his life and death.

At the end of the book, I found the funeral to be the ultimate closure. They made Johnny up to look exactly how he did when he was alive and that is very important. Why make someone up to look nothing like they did when they were alive. He was in an open casket, dressed in a tweed suit that had a spot on the lapel because when he was alive he had a spot there. The funeral was also filled with many flowers and only close friends and family attended. Johnny's parents said that although he can't visit them, they can and will always visit him. At the end of the story their final sense of closure was driving along the Hudson River where they had driven with him so many times because he loved going there.

I enjoyed reading this book because it was a true story about the life of a young boy and was written by his father. It opened your eyes to death and made you see that a young boy with such a strong will didn't let anything hold him back. It showed me that his spirit kept him alive so long even though he never really knew he was dying. I found it very strange that on the front cover of the book, they have p111 written on it. I didn't realize this until I was done reading the book and when I did, I looked on that page in the book and to my surprise, that was the page that Johnny had died. I have never seen an author do this before and wonder why he chose to do so. Overall, this book was very easy reading and I enjoyed it very much. Now I am someone who really hates to read so it surprised me how quickly I finished it. I would recommend this book to anyone but especially people who think that when they get sick life stops and you lose your will to do things. It will make you see that if a seventeen-year-old boy has the will to survive, anyone can.

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Decline of the Roman Empire

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At the beginning of the Roman Empire, it was strong and powerful. Nevertheless, as the years went by it seemed it was going the other way. Four ways that I chose, where Rome was declining are as follows economically, military, politically, and socially. As a whole, the empire was too big to control by one emperor. This posed many problems. . The military was not even true loyal Rome citizens; they were Mercenaries. The empire relied too much on slave labour, which caused for a great distinction between the rich and the poor. The military was not even true loyal Rome citizens; they were Mercenaries. The people did not have very high morals. They believed what ever the emperor believed. The empire was falling apart.

One of the primary reasons, to the deterioration of the economy, was the lack of circulating currency in the Western Empire. Two reasons for the lack of funds are wholesale hoarding of bullion by Roman citizens, and the widespread looting of the Roman treasury by the barbarians. These two factors, coupled with the massive trade deficit with Eastern Regions of the Empire served to stifle the growth of wealth in the west. In essence, the Roman Empire crumbled due to insufficient economic power, which came about for a variety of reasons. It lacked the resources necessary to keep such a vast empire intact. The empire reached such a point that it could no longer support itself, becoming top heavy, and crashed down like a tower that had grown too high for its own foundation.

Ellsworth Huntington has proposed a unique hypothesis relating the changing rainfall patterns and climate in the Mediterranean with the economic problems encountered by the western empire. He writes that, as the climate became more unstable, it began to alternate annually between hot droughts and cold rainy seasons. This, for obvious reasons, would decrease crop yields, and would force the Romans to undergo widespread irrigation projects on land, which had formerly been self-sufficient. The huge quantities of water needed for this project had to be contained in large reservoirs, and the standing water became stagnant. Stagnant water is the ideal environment for breeding mosquitoes, the carriers of malaria. Malaria began manifesting itself at epidemic levels, weakening and killing a large percentage of the population.

Cheap University Papers on decline of the Roman Empire

When one thinks of the Roman Empire, the first thing, which may come to mind, is the strength and stability provided by its army. It is widely held that the fortunes of Rome were directly tied to the prowess of her military. Many scholars have maintained that in the later period of the Empire, Romes military might have steadily declined for a variety of reasons. In the end, it was this lack of security, which allowed the barbarian hordes to topple what had once been the mightiest empire in the world

Historian Arthur Ferrill has stated this theory succinctly. The destruction of Roman military power in the fifth century A.D. was the obvious cause of the collapse of Roman government in the West. He contends that a massive the Roman army, with perhaps 00,000 men, eventually disentegated into an unorganized rable. The most obvious factor in the falling apart of the army is the atrition sustained in the numerous conflicts with the Barbarians. Added factors such as the reliance on mercenaries, the fragmentation of the soldiers loyalty to numerous power centers, and lack of incentive for Roman Citizens to enlist, combined to destroy the Army as a viable unit.

One of the most important factors in the decline of the military was the lack of recruits from Romanized backgrounds. One problem was the granting of citizenship to all free men within the empire. Originally, non-citizens who served in the Roman army would be granted citizenship at the end of their enlistment. It was this desire of the provincials to acquire Roman citizenship that accounts for the fact that during the first two centuries voluntary enlistments sufficed to keep the armed services up to establishment. Certainly, the army would not have remained at full strength if it had depended on volunteers from those who already possessed the Roman citizenship, for these showed the remarkable disinclination to serve (Salmon). Rome was also experiencing a population decrease during this time. As the population decreased, the available work force obviously did likewise. In addition to the widespread disease, war, starvation, and forcible deportation must be taken into account (Boak). These occurrences would obviously have negative results on the military establishment. Because of factors such as the free citizenship now offered by Rome and the lack of available work force, Romes army, which had been the symbol of its power, was left unorganized and nearly useless. Because of this, the Barbarians began to infiltrate the Western Empire, first as small groups of settlers and mercenaries, but eventually in whole tribes or hoardes. They detected the military impotence of the Romans, and exploited it to establish their own kingdoms. Thus, the political entity known as the Roman Empire ended, and the Germanic kingdoms of Western Europe began to flourish.

Rome was a highly hierarchial and class-conscious society, but there was the possibility of mobility between classes because by the second century BCE, class was no longer determined solely by birth. The classes described below superseded the old patrician/plebeian distinction, though certain elements of dress were still reserved for patricians.

• Senatorial class (basis was political), composed of all who served in the Senate, and by extension, their families, though only men actually serving in the Senate could wear the tunic with broad stripes (laticlavi). This class was dominated by the nobles (nobiles), families that had had at least one consul among their members. The first man in his family to be elected consul, thus qualifying his family for noble status, was called a "new man" (novus homo).

• Equestrian class (equites) (basis was economic), composed of families that possessed and maintained a specified minimum amount of wealth (landed property worth at least 400,000 sesterces) but were not senators. Equestrians wore the tunic with narrow stripes (angusti clavi).

• Commons, "the people" all other freeborn Roman citizens. The special mark of dress for males was the toga.

• Freedpeople (liberti) men and women who had been slaves but had bought their freedom, they were not fully free because they had various restrictions on their rights and owed certain duties to their former masters, but they could become citizens if their masters had been citizens. The next generation, their freeborn children, became full citizens and could even be equestrians if rich enough. Freed people had low social status but might become quite wealthy. They had no special distinction of dress.

• Slaves system of chattel slavery where human beings were born into slavery or sold into slavery through war or piracy. Slaves were the property of their owners by law, but by custom some slaves (especially urban, domestic slaves) might be allowed their own savings (peculium) with which they might later buy their freedom, or their masters could manumit them, so some mobility into the previous class was possible. Roman slavery was not racially based.

The senatorial class, particularly by a small number of noble families, heavily dominated the conduct of political affairs. The upper classes generally followed one of two informal political factions

• Populares ("the party of the people") power base was the Assembly of the Tribes and the tribunes. Though also composed of Senators and nobles, this faction appealed to the interests of the commons. Today, we might call this faction "left-wing."

• Optimates ("the party of the best men" or of the aristocrats) power base was the Senate. This faction promoted conservative policies that supported the interests of the wealthy and the old noble families. Today, we might call this faction "right-wing."

This is how the historian Sallust (mid-first century BCE) described the two political factions during his lifetime After the restoration of the power of the tribunes in the consulship of Pompey and Crassus, certain men whose youth intensified their natural aggressiveness obtained this very important office. These tribunes began to rouse the mob by inveighing against the Senate, and then inflamed popular passion still further by handing out bribes and promises, whereby they won renown and influence for themselves. They were strenuously opposed by most of the nobility, who posed as defenders of the Senate but were concerned to maintain their own privileged position. The whole truth�to put it in a word�is that although all disturbers of the peace in this period put forward specious pretexts, claiming either to be protecting the rights of the people or to be strengthening the authority of the Senate, this was mere pretence in reality, every one of them was fighting for his personal aggrandizement. Lacking all self-restraint, they stuck at nothing to gain their ends, and both sides made ruthless use of any successes they won. (Sallust Bellum Catilinae 8, translated by S. A. Handford [Penguin Classics, 16], 04-05)

Campaigning Personal wealth was essential for political office, since no salaries were paid and the process of campaigning was very expensive; showmanship was essential.

• A candidate for office wore an artificially whitened toga and so was candidatus ("made shining white").

• The social institution of patronage (clientela) was essential in politics, and one of the key duties of clients was to accompany their patron on official business and all kinds of campaigning, and of course to vote with him on all issues.

• Powerful families supported each other through informal alliances (amicitia) often cemented through arranged marriages; the functioning of government was greatly influenced by "backroom politics."

• During the last century of the Republic, bribery was not at all uncommon

o indirect provision of free grain, free entertainment (baths, shows, chariot races and gladiatorial games), even huge outdoor banquets

o direct actually paying off officials or giving the commoners money directly in return for votes

• During this same period, intimidation was also a campaign strategy. Candidates sometimes incited riots, or hired thugs or gladiators to rough people up. Those who were generals, occasionally, used the threat of their loyal soldiers to pressure the state.

• Commoners' only way to influence politics was through their sheer numbers�by votes, and especially by riots.

Social division was very distinct during the Roman times. As Rome grew in power and influence, wealth began to accumulate in the hands of a few people. While we know little of the social structure of the very early Romans, by a very early period in the citys history, society was divided up into two groups the patricians and the plebeians. The patricians were the wealthiest members of society; they controlled most of the wealth, trade, power, and the military. Only patricians could serve as clan leaders; therefore, only patricians were allowed to sit on the Senate or hold any appointed or elected offices. The plebeians were the majority of the population; they were mainly small farmers, hard laborers, and craftspeople. They worked mainly for the patricians, although some small farmers worked their own lands rather than the lands of the wealthy.

From four reasons that I just presented to you, do you not agree that Rome was declining. It seems to me that there was a lot wrong with the whole country. Four ways that I chose, where Rome was declining are as follows economically, military, politically, and socially. As a whole, the empire was too big to control by one emperor. This posed many problems. . The military was not even true loyal Rome citizens; they were Mercenaries. The empire relied too much on slave labour, which caused for a great distinction between the rich and the poor. The military was not even true loyal Rome citizens; they were Mercenaries. The people did not have very high morals. They believed what ever the emperor believed. The empire was falling apart. Rome was good at a time, but at this point, it seems that the goodness was leaving its country.

Please note that this sample paper on decline of the Roman Empire is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on decline of the Roman Empire, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on decline of the Roman Empire will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Controversial argumentative essay topics

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