China economic policy

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"Peering Toward the Future While Tilting Back into the Past"

The Struggle to Open China's Markets

Dating back to the Qing Dynasty, the popular assumption among the Chinese was "that China was the "central" kingdom and that other countries were, by definition, peripheral, removed from the cultural center of the universe. The Chinese, therefore, showed little interest in precise information or detailed study of foreign countries" (Spence, 11). The Qing seemed uninterested in any foreign gains to be made due to this superior view of themselves. The Emperor Qianlong's approach as mentioned in The First Edict of September 17 seemed to be, "We possess all things. I set no value on objects strange or ingenious, and have no use for [other] countries manufacturers" (Cheng, 104-106). Emperor Qianlong believed that both China and foreign governments had little to gain though trade. China has long had a policy of isolation from western powers, to the extent that a force of anti-foreign nationalism arose to the forefront for the majority of Chinese modern history. Ethnocentric views of superiority and autarky led their leaders to believe isolation was in their country's best interest. However, today China has entered a period of modernization and westernization, by no longer excluding the Western influence through political and economic isolation. As a result, China has begun to reap the benefits of Western trade, technology and capitalist ideas now that the force of "anti-foreign nationalism" has diminished from Chinese thought.

Although Qianlong had pursued an economic policy of isolation in the latter half of the 18th century some ports were open to foreign trade during certain periods of the year. During these time periods the Chinese experienced equal trade rights with the West. As a result of the growing demand for Chinese teas, porcelain, silks, and decorative goods in the West, trade began to soar. Accordingly, since the idea of anti-foreign nationalism and ethnocentrism proposed the West had nothing of manufactured value to China, the trade conducted was in exchange for silver.

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By the 1780's China was prospering, gaining incredible amounts of wealth from exporting goods such as tea and silk, while importing large amounts of silver. In effect, China had a surplus balance of trade. The west, namely Britain, knew that in order to stop silver from leaving their country they had to find a trading good that China would accept in exchange for the teas, and silks. Britain's interests in the large areas of India gave way to the production and sale of opium, a cash crop that would, in turn, balance the trade with China as the drug became extremely popular among Chinese citizens.

However, in 181 the Chinese government prohibited the sale and use of opium as they came to realize the harsh effects the drug had on the population, and the hindering effect it posed on trade. The onset of the Opium War sparked years later as British merchants refused to stop selling the opium to the Chinese. With a British victory in China concluding the Opium War, Chinese trade rights with the West fell apart. Unequal treaties were forced upon the Chinese, opening more ports in China, ultimately favoring British trade, while making China merely a trade tool of the West. Nonetheless, prior to the Opium War we saw that with equal trade rights China had vast amounts of economic prosperity when partnered with the West. This suggests that China did have much to gain through trade with the West, and if today in the modern world China were to poses equal trade rights with the West they again would prosper.

Westerners have continually attempted to infiltrate East Asian countries strict foreign policies and conservative views. Both Korea and China saw the West as a threat to their sovereignty, culture, and way of life, and decided to play out a policy of isolation. Refusing and fearing modernization, which, inevitably would lead to "westernization." On the other hand, the example of Japanese history provides hindsight that would suggest trade and open arms to Western ideas would greatly benefit the developing nations of East Asia. Ever since Commodore Perry arrived on the coast of Japan their culture, economic strength, way of life and standard of living has flourishing. Japanese dominance in East Asia arose immediately, as not only an economic and cultural heart, but also a military power that would now lay threat to Korea, China and Russia. From Japan's modernization, we see that the technology, and innovation received through trade with the West was essential to their success as a superpower. Indeed, we must infer that if nations such as China and Korea had the open arms policy that Japan adopted they too would have emerged as economic and military powers prior to the WWII, allowing for them to resist the imperialistic expansionism that Japan posed threat to in the first half of the 0th century.

Indeed, it seems as though Chinese scholars recognized this as Social Darwinism became popular in the 0th century. While China sat back and witnessed the growth and dominance of Japan through their plentiful steps in modernization during the late 1th and early 0th century, Chinese scholars began to question Confucianism, and their culture as a whole. Confucianism had forced the people to hold on to the "old" Chinese way of life, allowing for little change, and opposing westernization. However, while Japan expressed its imperialism by colonizing Korea, Social Darwinism suggested to the Chinese scholars that they may too, like Korea, be inferior to the modernized Japan. China, fearing that they would face extinction unless they adopted major government reforms and attempted to step into the modern world, finally began to shift away from the fear of modernization and westernization.

In hindsight, we see that China initially tried to seclude itself by trading internally only during the 18th century since leaders felt foreign goods were unuseful. However, after years of European infringement upon East Asia, in which Westerners struggled to transform China into a nation with open arms for Western goods, it ironically was the fear of Japanese expansion that would force Chinese modernization.

Yet, now that the Chinese had decided to step into the modern world to protect itself from Japan, they would fall into the hands of Communism. China adopting Communism would further frustrate the West as Communism shut the large markets, and excluded trade to other communist nations such as the Soviet Union. The West saw its failure to open the markets of China as Communism rose under the leadership of Mao Zedong.

Communism was greatly influenced by two main factors in China. Firstly, the discontent toward French (West) society by Chinese students and government officials living there. Chinese students during the early 0th century had been studying in France, and working in factories to pay their tuition. They saw daily life as a struggle since money was short and tuition was high. These students would later form the Communist government in China. Similarly, the hatred grew for the French and its allies as the Treaty of Versailles divided Chinese land that was previously controlled by Germany among the Allied nations instead of returning it to China. Secondly, the support the Soviet Union provided in aid and soldiers to protect China from Japan allowed for a strong relationship between the leaders of the emerging communist party in China and the leaders of the Soviet Union. Indeed the aid provided by the Soviet Union was essential in gathering support for the Communist Party in China. Also, the Chinese citizenry now had a growing respect for the Soviets after they protected China from Japan.

Nonetheless, with the fall of the Soviet Union as a superpower after the Cold War, the influence of Communism diminished in China. The Russian government grew a reputation of corruption and instability. Would China inevitably follow? Certainly the fall of the Soviet Economy under the communist regime must have worried Chinese businessmen hoping for trade with their northern ally. It seems as though China recognized its economy could not stabilize without the former Soviet Union whom had been critical in supporting not only the Chinese economy but communist political spectrum as well. Such support was most evident during the civil war years as The Soviet Union sent missionaries to shanghai to support the communist regime. Indeed, China has therefore began to step into a more open market economy, which is extremely ironic since this is what the West has wanted all along, and now finally that they had seemed to give up on opening China, they accomplished it indirectly by coming out of the Cold War on top, forcing China to seek new means of economic prosperity.

It was President Nixon who took advantage of China's economic and political instability as he visited Mao Zedong in 17, sparking a revolutionary movement leading China reluctantly towards an open market economy. Just like the Europeans had done centuries before, he too was participating in the grand attempt by Western nations to further open the Chinese markets. As a result, China began to peer forward into the process of "westernization" while still holding on to its dear Marxist-Leninism / Confucianism ideals that had been so prominent in the past. Consequently, by 186 students and intellectuals had become infuriated with their government and conducted "a series of demonstrations demanding that democratic right be granted to the Chinese people so that the economic modernization could take place in a more open atmosphere"(Spence, 50)

As a result, by the 170's "rural families were allowed to increase vastly the amount of land they could till as private plots and sell the produce on the open market at unpegged prices. On a smaller scale, urban entrepreneurs were encouraged to experiment with non-exploitative business" (Spence, 50)

Such vast changes in the Chinese government ideals, and economy led to problems of corruption and structure. China was in a predicament; as a result of the new economic reforms a new class of Chinese businessmen had been formed, and they were able to greatly benefit from the new economic reforms. Consequently, this new class of Chinese businessmen had large amounts of money with which they "were thirsting for consumer goods"(Spence,50). Ultimately they began to import illegally from outside nations. Herein lies the main conflict for the Chinese government; they were and are caught between their new economic reforms and there old governmental ideals.

Indeed, the new economic reforms which show signs of capitalism, have led to huge economic prosperity, similar to that of what China saw in the 18th century when it traded their silks for British silver. Showing further signs China plans to continue its economic reforms leading toward an open market economy China has entered the World Trade Organization (WTO), and since has "expanded its exports and improved absorption of foreign investment through using opportunities provided by its WTO membership. In the first 10 months this year [00], China's foreign trade went up 1.7 percent…trade surplus amounted to 4.77bn US dollars, up 4. per cent on an annual basis"(Xinhua News Agency). Accordingly, China's GDP has been on the rise, and is predicted to further rise in 00 by as much as 8 percent.

Evidently, we see that with the fall of economic superiority in Russia (the former Soviet Union) after the Cold War, China had been forced to look else where for trade, if it were to prosper. In turn, this has encouraged more of an open market economy in China as it was forced to turn to the West for the trade lost with the Soviet Union. This has been seen by such economic reforms as privatization of some industries, and some business throughout China. The Peoples Bank of China has pledged to begin a new open market operation every Tuesday and Thursday allowing for more and more privatization of businesses.

Ironically, in the past, the West has struggled vigorously to open China's vastly populated markets to Western business and failed, only to let China to fall into the hands of a communist regime. However, now that China has escaped its old ideals and fear of westernization it has begun to accept and prosper from Western trade and technology. In the last few years China has taken enormous steps that signify its willingness to trade world wide, and conform to suit capitalist systems. Interestingly, because China is currently in a transition period due to its economic reforms it is the only nation in which you can visit the 1th and 1st century in the same country! Small hinterland communities still take to the old ways of agriculture and old ways of life while huge cities like Beijing flourish in the 1st century with sky scraping buildings that resemble that of the United States.

Bibliography

Cheng, The Search for Modern China A Documentary Collection.

Pp 104-106 (Handout)

Cummings, Bruce. Korea's Place in the Sun

W. W. Norton and Company, New York. 17.

Iuranich, Jamie. The Chinese Civil War

http//16..57.100/search?q=cacheg8UEdH66vuwCcityhonors.buffalo.k1.ny.us/city/aca/hist/ibhist/ibhiststud/histiur.html+chinese+civil+war&hl=en&ie=UTF-8

McClain, James. A Modern History Japan

W. W. Norton and Company, New York. 00.

Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China

W W Norton and Company, New York. 1.

Xinhua News Agency, Beijing, Trade official says China has performed well since WTO entry. in English 1541 gmt Nov 0

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My view on Puritanism

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Based on the literature we have read so far, I think the Puritans were very confused and irrational. They were so scared of the devil or evil that it drove them to madness. It is unbelievable to me the events that took place in the Salem witch trials. A four year old was jailed, a man was pressed to death, people were thrown in jail, convicted, and hanged on the basis of unrealiable and probably untrue evidence. The judges were unqualified and were arrogant because of their power. I am glad our court system was changed over time, because the court they had was very unfair. It was more like a show or a procedure that had to be done to make things look like it was justified. Even when the court found someone innocent, the judge would tell the jurors to reconsider. To me, it seemed like alot of it was caused by the Putnam-Porter rivalary, the threat of the Salem Town to Puritan beliefs and ways of living, and the threat of the Indian attacks. Aside from the Salem witch trials, the Puritans were very strict and somewhat hypocritical in their beliefs. They didnt allow fiction or fantasy literature because they believed literature should only be for spiritual insight and instruction. They valued frugality, self discipline for self improvement, hard work, and self relience. They settled in Jamestown in 160. Their government was theocracy-strict guidence of God. They believed one could not change their feelings by praying or church going, but must be saved by the grace of God. Their literature had a very plain style, which they valued in literature and especially religion. Unlike the pilgrims, who wished to seperate from the Church of England, the Puritans wanted to purify from within. Some popular books written by Puritans were The Bay Pslam Book and The Day of Doom by Michael Wigglesworth. Other authors were Anne Bradstreet, my personal favorite, Cotton Mathers, Increase Mathers, and Jonathan Edwards. Jonathan Edwards had sermons, that were mainly meant to make the listeners feel CONTRITE and fearful. He claimed that God held you in his hand above hell and could let you go at anytime. He also urged the sinners to ask for the grace of God and be saved before it was too late. Anne Bradstreet wrote poetry such as Upon the Burning of Our House, which is about her house being burnt down and her personal acceptance of it because she knows her true treasure is waiting in Heaven. The Puritans only lasted about a century, and by the American Revolution, few Americans would call themselves Puritans.

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Franklin D. roosevelt

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Section 1

Franklin D. Roosevelt was the nd President of the United States, he did a lot of things for the United States. Roosevelt also led the nation through the great depression and having a war with Japan for bombing Pearl Harbor. He is one of the beloved politicians of the 0th century. Roosevelt also created programs/laws called the new deal that changed everything in the United States that could be helped for the peoples. I choose him because he is the most talked about president in the whole history who helped the economy better from collapsing. He also ended the great depression from preventing it from getting worse . I hope to learn more about his life in his childhood, education, and political ideas. Seeing about putting the world at war and starting it with World War II and the attack on Pearl Harbor in the shock of him hearing it. Roosevelt was one of the Presidents who were important to the history of him being one of the most reliable people who made a great change. Knowing how he became president in depth of how who he did and changed the world as president of the United States. This person had a lot in common in his name everywhere putting in books as an symbol of a great leader I think who lived in the 0s through 40s before his death occurred.

Section -Birth/Childhood

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 0, 188 in Hyde Park, New York where his mother Sara Delano borne him. His father was James Roosevelt; he was a vice president of Delaware and of Hudson Railway. His father had made a lot of money in by a mass of fortune he did with China and by trading. Franklin was a "little prince" who gotten anything in his hand from his parents. Franklin spends time outside more then in the house where he lived at so he can learn a few things with his parents. His house was filled with servants, governess, and nurses who can come to his aid or anything personal. Their parents were travelling around to different places for his son to get familiar with. As he grew up he came interested in collecting stamps, birds, and anything that was from the sea. Soon everything he had was a collection that he loved to do and have. As his childhood passed by he wasn't going to school and was having fun with his family doing anything he wanted. His whole childhood was learning different things/anything that he was interested in. They had no problems in anything that was in their life, in which they can take care of themselves and never worry. The whole nation was still standing and rising pretty well in holding it together. His whole life let him filled with excitement having his father be the rich person in the family they inherited so much. Through his childhood, his father took him into the sea as he Franklin liked in his childhood. When he went on the trips, his father gave him a lesson in yachting. As he was taught he and his father traveled up to Maine to Canada in a long trip they had got to. More and more it came to him in having a senseful life with his father and mother in living a big house, Franklin never dreamed before as he was born. As he thinks, Franklin never thought his life could be more fun without his father in living doing what he wanted. All of this with his parents whom cared for him in because he was an only child who had been their prince for them to spend time with. Order Custom Essay on Franklin D. roosevelt

Education

As he went to school his parents enrolled him to Groton in the fall of 186, a private school of upper-class boys in Salem, Massachusetts. This was a school for him to be obedience to God and the country. It as a result of a strong influence making all the boys including him pursues a career in politics and public service. Meaning in as a lawyer, government of state, or president they could choose. When he was still in school he was 14 years old in which all the boys in that school was two years older than he was. It was because all the time with his parents spending time with him made Franklin lose a lot of his time in education. This had him think he wasted time just to be with his father and mother, now has him realized school was important to him. When Franklin was growing up he tried different things that interested him to do. The thing he did was he in a choir singing, school plays, and a leader on the debating team. In the spring of 188 Franklin and two of his schoolmates planned to join the Navy instead of going to school. It was "Resolved, the United States must have a stronger Navy" was one their most memorable moment. He joined because of his dream of fighting in the Spanish-American War in Cuba. Soon after he became Assistant Secretary of the Navy, but had him realized he should never dropped out at first. Then he thinked it was a wrong to join at the first place. After that incident was over he went back and finished with his year in private school he tried to maintain a C average and passed then Graduate. He went on to Harvard in the fall of 100. His father and mother died as he started his first year in college. As he finished at Harvard in June 4, 10 he want on to Columbia law school where he finished his education as a lawyer. Then in 110 as he was finished with law school he decided to go into politics and exchanged from his law career. He wanted to learn about politics because it was his goal to go on to be president and be in the White House instead. On January 1, 18 he was finish he sworn to be governor of New York as he ran for when it came then next to become a leader in more power.

Occupation

His first job was going to a lawyer, but had him changed into learning about politics which led being a governor. Franklin soon got his governorship in 18 and was thrilled to becoming one ship closer to the White House in where he has plans for the future. As he ran for governor for New York in his hometown this was a whole revolution for him to change what it is today. Being Governor to him is something he can least to for himself and others around him. He thinks someday that being governor will make him a president someday. . By that time an enormity of depression came by this was a decision of the governor which was Franklin Delano Roosevelt. So his job now was to put the stock market crash away for the depression to be over. He dropped prices for people to buy goods from business in which they could afford. There was very little money circulating, so in which Roosevelt had made easy credit terms for people as customers. Then banks were dropping down interest rates in practically giving money that needed it. As he was still governor he than took charge in being president as he promised. He ran for it against Herbert Hoover on January , 1 in which he announced to run for president. As the days and months passed by he stated that he doesn't want Hoover to be reelected and should take over for him. He promised the country to have public works program and conversation program. Then Roosevelt won the elected on March 4,1 in as the nd president of the United States. So now his job being the president he probably sees a hard part to help the United States stay together. This was something he wanted to be in the White House and being in charged as he wished instead of being governor this was a whole new evolution for him. Since Hoover was out of the way he could now focus on helping people have a better life. Making him president is a special thing for him to do what people wanted have changed with agreeing with putting up issues that are fought. In at first being a lawyer was to help people, he saw being president was better than for everyone.

Contribution to American History

As he promise he putted everyone to work with his programs so to put people to work instead of being homeless on the streets. This was a relief for everyone who voted for him to make the economy better. Then was described as called "The New Deal" in which he created for his part in being president. Many of the programs in the new deal were many that came out to others in seeing it. So in which now he made programs such as (CCC) Civilian Conversation Corps, (AAA) Agricultural Adjustment Agency, (NRA) National Recovery Administration, (FDIC) Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, (SEC) Securities and Exchange Commission, and (WPA) Works Projects Administration. All these together helped the countries improve the condition from all the unemployment and the banks were more secure in having money. The depression still goes on but this helped hold on to the United States. Soon the Supreme Court had disagreed about this whole incident. The policies that Roosevelt had made were criticizing from the business community and others. Soon it got out of hand and the New Deal was done by the year 1. In September 1 World War II started at the beginning in which United States would help. Which led us into war and having a new beginning. The United States helped the allies of Europe, which led the war in a year or two into fighting. As each countries of Europe were surrendering and couldn't hold on in which now Roosevelt had to do something. He visited the Prime Minister of England Winton Churchill who helped them defeat Germany when they soon going to invade. As his job as president he supplied them with weapons, ammunitions, and others needs for help them stop World War II. After the war thing was over it was the price of freedom in how Roosevelt had made to stop Germany from conquering other countries in Europe. In as President he made a decision, which kept the United State in peace. Then Pearl Harbor had came on December 7, 141 when Japanese had bombed and attacked it. As this event was shocking to him, Roosevelt had heard about the crisis event. This made him died in his death in shock for he couldn't take it anymore.

Death and the World Reaction

On April 1, 145 Franklin D. Roosevelt had died of a cerebral hemorrhage which was stress from the blood to his vessel in his brain couldn't take it anymore. He was a man who worked and never quit as president to make the economy better. It was all the exhausted overwork he did which led him to the disease. The world reaction was shock that a he was the president who helped people gets jobs in putting out a programs which was the New Deal. This changed the whole foundation of the United States and Nations put together. When the nation fell apart he took action for it and people liked a president like him who had made it better. People reacted like they loss a special president who changed the world for people to live a good life in them in how he cared. After 1 long years and governor/president he made a difference in ending the Great Depression. People liked his whole promising in which to have jobs that they had from being unemployed. This would of happen if he wasn't to be president it would become a crippled nation as it started from the beginning. When the world reacted this was a moment that they never forget about Franklin D. Roosevelt in how the demand was having people like him as president. It was like everyone wanted him to be president elected over and over so they can have him create a better place. This was a symbol of how he helps the United States in his great legacy from the past and now. The people who supported him in being president and governor that helped him would always remember Roosevelt. They never wanted him to go away because he was responsible person initiating programs today to be granted. Also other had thought he was a beloved person in politicians a person who can be in charge. Being in the White House for Roosevelt was like having him fight and do something people would want in demand a peace environment. Even if the New Deal couldn't hold on people reaction would be that he tried to help us to stable for the whole nation.

Section

I learned how to save the nation and economy from going into depression and has done many of things to help people. Roosevelt had made programs as it was called together the New Deal in which saves people from being on the streets. It helped people have a job and put the whole country into be stable. Also he wasn't just the president he was also the governor of New York than being as a leader to this whole nation. He shown pride and success in putting new things we though would a president would have done. He's so worthy because of how he changed the world from being into a failure to putting it back as it was. All the things were a person with passion in with how in trusted himself in him. Roosevelt was a brave person to work in any situation of how he wanted to be in charge. In researching him is worthy of how a new leader like him is worth looking and researching at to known all the main facts about him. We remember him because people knew as a president more than the governor did as he was. He stopped the stock market crashed in which we were in trouble with the bank and money people had to deal with. This is why we remember Roosevelt as a spiritual leader in fixing and promising other to elect him made a trust. He created the New Deal, which were lots of programs and a founder who saved the nation from going down under. If it weren't for him no other president would have ever made this in his or her life. So in learning about made me know everything in what he did and have done for people in the United States to kept it safe from depression or not from happening. Having a president like this is also a legend who made this century turned around for us in every fact for him seeing a figure of him as remembered. In portraying the history of Franklin Delano Roosevelt is a celebrating for making the world a better place for the people back than to have jobs at the least from a collapse or in the end of time will be suffered with him now. I-Search check what is wrong and sent it back full edit with everything in order so you can finish it

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Critical Analysis of Descarte' Meditations - a comparison with two other thinkers.

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Faith is an inseparable essence of our existence, and as such, carries its authority without the burdensome responsibility of reason. However, humankind has an infinite capacity for doubt and questions matters that hang on the verge of our comprehension. The matter of God's existence lacks empirical evidence and hasn't grounds for substantive rational certainty. Nevertheless, faith and religion have occupied the minds of many for many a generation and despite their irrational foundation have provided for rational moral concepts that are the foundation of our civilization. To question the existence of God is natural. It is important to seek proof of the world. However, it is equally important and essential to choose the right method of reasoning and to evaluate assumptions as critically as possible to avoid doubting a greater unknown and accepting another in its place. Philosophers and thinkers throughout the ages have tried to approach the issue with the tools of thought (Descartes; Spinoza; Weils). Rene Descartes, in his Meditations offers one of the most appealing of arguments for the existence of God. In his book, Discourse on Method and Meditations, Descartes exercises the reasoning power of his great mind to foster a methodical effort of regression and analysis with an astounding conclusion of God's necessary existence. His method is profoundly tedious and essentially persuasive. Yet, the underlying premise remains questionable and not beyond reasonable doubt. The purpose of this paper is to critically analyze Descartes' Meditations and to compare his reasons for the existence of God with the ideas of two other prominent philosophers, Benedict de Spinoza and Simone Weils.

A more recent thinker, Simone Weil, has a different approach to explaining the existence and essence of God. In an essay The Things of the World Weil presents her views as a combination of perceptive categorical generalizations and perilous nostalgia. Her assumptions show a refined and perceptive conception, which despite all its appealing resonance and reverence of common belief, elude logical methodology. Another great thinker, Benedict de Spinoza, deriving somehow that in the universe no two things of the same substance can exist, came up with a slightly different, but equally thorough argument for the existence of God.

Rene Descartes First Meditation explains his plan in pursuit of knowable truths. His systematic breakdown of the set of things he previously claimed to know is typical and substantiated. In Meditation I, Descartes develops the groundwork for his instrumental philosophical thesis. The basic truths are merely the stones on which we base our existence and the existence of our world. In the final paragraph of the section, he comes down to what he believes is a necessary consideration in the search for some fundamental knowable truth(s) - he supposes the existence of an evil deceiver who may potentially deceive him in everything he appears to observe and think about. His consideration of this is valid and necessary. However the mere fact that he continues optimistically in his pursuits after the considerations in this section shows his implicit belief that he is not being deceived in his current or future deliberations on the matter. This simple flaw seems to contradict the very essence of this meditation. Descartes, whose elegant conclusion in Meditation II states, 'cogito ergo sum' begins to weave a distinctly tangible pattern of assumptions leading to a virile conclusion that God must necessarily exist. However, all that Descartes has really proved is that he has a mind. He has not proved that he has a body or that an external world exists or that the thoughts in his mind other than "I exist" are true. Ren� Descartes' major philosophical project was to sort out what we have good grounds for believing from that for which we have insufficient grounds. In Descartes Meditation , all but matters of religious faith, authority is rejected as the basis of belief. Ultimately, the logical grounds for belief are those characteristics shared by mathematical propositions, a certain clarity and distinctness. But before he could rest content with these grounds, Descartes believed he had to subject them to a severe test. Descartes project was to validate the use of the human faculties in gaining knowledge of the world. He was able to accept or reject various propositions at will. He concluded that it was possible to trust the use of rational intuition in establishing that he exists and that he is a thinking thing with an understanding and will. In Meditation 1, Descartes had held that God could deceive him about the truth of very simple matters, such as that + = 5. (Descartes 6-8) To show that these ideas were safe, Descartes had to prove that God exists and is no deceiver. There are two arguments in the Meditations for Gods existence. The first is an argument unique to Descartes. "I am an incomplete and dependent being, the idea of a complete and independent being, that is to say of God, presents itself with such distinctiveness…" (Descartes 1). The idea of God is that of an "infinite, perfect being' stems from the assumtion that perection could not have originated within our mind independent and is, therefore, a concept originating in God. He writes in the following statement "I, who posess this idea, am or exist, I conclude so evidently that God exists…" (Descartes 1-14) He claims that his method contains the computational / mathematical method of reasoning. And, it appears that there is no other method of reasoning or deducing the essential, basic known that can yield the same kind of certainty. However, a high degree of doubt concerning the motive and relevance of the argument exists. What if it is possible to conceive of the process of perfection without understanding what is perfect It is plausible, but not completely compelling, to conclude that Descartes is advocating the application of computational / mathematical reasoning to all topics. Whether he actually implements this tool to a necessary degree, or establishes appropriate measures of all variables remains to be a source of confusion.

Tackling the same issue, but froma different front, Benedict de Spinoza stated that "God, or substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each expresses eternal and infinite essentiality, necessarily exists" (Spinoza XI). Although it is difficult to consider God in terms of Spinozas substance, and ignorance plays an important role in this obstacle, it is possible to grasp the idea if one considers Spinozas previous prepositions. For example, in Preposition VII, Spinoza states that "Every substance is necessarily infinite." That in itself is not very convincing because observation suggests that there are things and substances with definite beginnings and ends, or at least as far as perceptions lead to understanding of the universe. However, Spinoza's approach uses the same regression analysis to deconstruct the material substance of our universe in an attempt to deduce the primary sourse of its creation.

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As a contrast, Simone Weil offers an entirely different view of God. Her ideas imply a great degree of divine revelation and leave the reasoning logic behind. It is not clear if her revelation is genuine or not. Her imagery and symbolism suggest a more common and more emotional understanding of God. She applies all effort to explain God as a benevolent being, whose essentially eternal nature cannot exist within our understanding of time. The image of God as a humble beggar certainly evokes a strong emotional response. (Weil 44). However, she relies on emotions and to some extent on popular generalizations to advocate her point. One clear distinction of Wiel's concept is the construct of Time. "Time, which is our one misery, is the very touch of his hand. It is an abdication by which he lets us exist." (Weil 45). To make her point clear, she offers an image of God as a beggar patiently waiting to receive those who choose to come to him. (Weil 44). It is an image of a benevolent God, whose eternal nature does not fit into the framework of our own concept of time. "The acceptance of time and of whatever it may bring-without any exception (amor fati) that is the only disposition of the soul, which is unconditioned in relation to time." (Weil 45). The finite and the infinite cannot coexist because while the eternal dwells in all time, the mortal can only exist in one period insignificant to the eternal. Still, Weil does not offer clear logical reasoning. Her approach is to present ideas in a metaphor designed to gain sympathy with popular beliefs. Her approach totally differs from Descartes. The French philosopher, while cautious of the religious authority of his day, attempts to doubt the popular assumptions to as much a depth as possible. Weil, in contrast, offers her views with the main assumption that there is no doubt about Gods existence. She gives the impression that faith is a natural extenuation and the existence of God is certain. Yet, her plea is not as appealing as some other precepts of religious revelation. There is an underlying current of frustration in Weil and little foundation of methodical reason such as offered by Descartes. This is not to say that Descartes' conclusions totally satisfy his purpose. Descartes makes astounding leaps into the metaphysical and abandons the empirical so often as to frustrate the modern intellect. For example, in Meditation Four he asserts that the concept of perfection could only come from a higher being. (Descartes 1). He assumes that being is God. This is an unreliable assumption because it is possible that the concept of perfection is a model of our own faculties and a natural extension of our imagination. Furthermore, it is also possible that the construct of perfection originated from a higher being, but not God. There is a fundamental overlap here between Descartes and Weil. As different as they are, both thinkers show a bias in attempting to confirm their expectation that God exists. Although Descartes states that he will doubt the existence of all things, there is a missing attempt to effectively deny God's existence. His whole exercise is to prove God exists and this bias prevents him from being totally objective. Likewise, and more definite, is Weils unwavering belief that God exists. Her conviction is strong and her concepts, therefore, reflect the fire of earlier Christian philosophers, whose goals were not so much the pursuit of truth, but a burning desire to protect the interests of the Church. She tells the readers what it means to love God. To give one's life for God is less noble than to die for the most miserable convict. (Weil 44). She seems to speak from a higher authority. However, it is impossible to tell if she herself is following a true God. The following statement shows how much bias is in Weil's argument "If a soul speaks of God with words of faith and love, either publicly or inwardly, this is no proof either for others or for itself. It may be that what it calls God is an impotent being, that is to say, a false God, and that it never really slept with God." (Weil 4). Perhaps her ideas are noble, but they are also presumptuous and ambiguous. She assumes to know without supporting her claims with reason. True, Faith is reason in itself. Weil's argument would have had merit in the thirteenth century, when faith had ultimate authority from the Church.

Reason may not be effective in determining God's existence. After all, the whole concept of revelation defies reason and yet establishes a profoundly firm foundation for faith. However, Weil's assumptions have some flaws. It is likely that revelation may reverberate in many manifestations and a revealed god may be false. Then, Weils assumptions have as much potential for error as do other religious dogmas. Surprisingly, her approach is more endearing, even if it alienates many true believers whose cultural traditions guide them to accept different names for essentially the same concept of religion. Descartes also makes many questionable assumptions. His concept of perfection, for example, may have meaning in terminology. However, there is a certain error in assuming that perfection is finite (as in the form of God). If perfection is infinite, then it is impossible to conceptualize it because of the ongoing process it naturally implies. Thus, it is possible to conceive of the ongoing process of perfection, but impossible to conceive total perfection. Descartes could not have conceived of a 'perfect being'. He could have only conceived of ongoing perfection, which is an infinite process. Perhaps reason has limits and will never reach as far as God. Reason is also an infinite process.

WORKS CITED

Descartes, Rene Discourse on Method and the Meditations. Translated by F.E.

Sutcliffe, Penguin Books

Benedict de Spinoza, The Ethics (1677), translated from the Latin by R.H.M. Elwes

(188) Part 1 - [Scanned and proof read by Edward A. Beach, Department of Philosophy and Religion, University of Evansville.] ONLINE, The INTERNET http//www.knuten.liu.se/~bjoch50/works/spinoza/ethics.html

Weil, Simone The Things of the World Essay.

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Joan of Ark

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Joan of Ark

Joan of Ark was born Jeanne dÕ Arch, in 141 in a small French town

named Domremy to a tenant farmer. Joan had manlike qualities and was

persuasive and strong. Joan never learned to read and write she was Cheap custom writing service can write essays on Joan of Ark

clairvoyant, she had knowledge of the future without using the five senses. In

145 when Joan was 1 she began hearingvoices� of St. Catherine, St.

Michael, and St. Margaret. Believing them to have been sent by God. These

voices told her that it was her given mission to free her country from the English,

and help the Dauphin gain the French throne. These voices also told her to cut

her hair, dress in menÕs uniform and to pick up the arms. She persuaded Charles

(who would become King), to let her fight in the war against the English. She

persuaded Charles to to make use of her at Orleans, which had been under

English siege for months. On May 4th, 14, at only 17 she was sent as a captain

to Orleans where her army captured the city. After this victory Joan had

convinced Charles that now would be the time for him to take the crown but

before this she would lead the French to her greatest battle so far at Patay on

June 18th, 14. When Joan returned home Charles the VII was crowned the

new King of France.

During the Hundred years war, England had taken most of France,

however with JoanÕs many victories power had shifted back to France who

eventually won the war. Joan travelled to the town of Soissons with Renaud de

Charles and Louis I de Bourbon, a relative of the King. When they were refused

entry into the town Joan remained while the others left her to fight the

Burgundians alone with her troops. Joan was outflanked and eventually

captured by Burgundian troops before the town of Compiegne in May rd,140.

Joan was then handed over to the English occupants who decided to have her

judged as a witch by the French court so as to cast discredit on the crowning of

Charles the VII. The trial was headed by Bishop Cauchon and took place

behind closed doors. Joan was sentenced to be burnt at the stake after she

refused to submit to the authority of the church and to admit that the voices she

heard had simply been the fruit of her imagination. Joan was interrogated for

two days to answer to over 70 charges against her from blasphemy to

receiving direct commandments from God. On the morning of May 0th, 141

after 4 months in prison Joan had been led to the stake, and was burned at the

pyre. To the last she maintained that her voices were sent by God and had not

deceived her.

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Degas

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Edgar Degas

Edgar Degas was an inspiring Parisian painter who lived in the nineteenth century. He was one of the original artists defining Impressionists art. He painted everyday things. He painted ballerinas rubbing their ankles and rehearsals for a ballet performance. He would paint "women et toilette," women combing their hair or drying off after a shower. He also did a few landscapes, however, the hallmark of Degas art was world of theatre, dance and music (www.Gardens of the Sunlight-Edgar Degas 1). It is hard to talk about his pieces chronologically because many overlap. Today, even though he is not around, he still may be one of the most inspiring artists in the world.

Edward Degas was born on July , 184 in Paris. His father was a wealthy banker and his mother descended from French nobility. She was born in New Orleans. His mother died when he was thirteen. People speculated he never talked about his mother after her death because it hurt him too much.

When he was younger he spent many hours in museums, theatres, and concert halls. He received an education at Lycee Louis le Grand in Paris. He took an art class there where he received many honorable mentions. It was also at school where he formed a close relationship with Ludovic Halevy. Ludovic Halevy was also from upper middle class society and would become Degas' influential life long friend. Despite Degas' father's love for the arts, especially Renaissance painting, Degas' father did not want him to become a painter. In 185 Degas' father sent him to law school. Even there Degas would doodle instead of concentrating on his studies. Degas would visit the studios of artists, many of which were his fathers friends and frequent the Louvre. At age eighteen and a half Degas received permission to copy famous artists paintings from the Louvre. In order to develop their own skills, nineteenth century artists copied paintings by the old masters, study their drawings and technique (www.metmuseum. org /explorer/Degas/Html/life. Html 1). It was when Degas was in these places that he met Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. Ingres was a world-renowned painter.

After leaving law school Degas spent 1854 through 185 in Italy studying art while staying with family. Degas was familiar with Italian art before his trip. In the nineteenth century there were no art schools and most painters went through apprenticeship with a master. Degas became apprentice to Lois Lamothe, who was one of Ingres' more advanced students. As a result of his contacts with the Italian masters he produced paintings on historical subjects, "genre scenes" and began to focus more on color and movement. The most famous genre scene is The Bellelli Family, an oil work on canvas (c. 1858-1860). Pictured are his aunt, her daughters and her husband. In the painting it shows the unhappiness between the husband and wife. The wife in the picture is in mourning as her father recently passed away (Degas' grandfather). It is speculated that the man in the framed drawing behind her is her deceased father. The work also shows Degas' use of asymmetrical compositions, a style he learned from studying photos of Japanese art. Degas admired the asymmetrical compositions and the concentration of surface pattern of the Japanese art. His paintings reflect these influences. Degas often cut out parts of the images in his paintings. For example, in this painting the dog's head was cut out of the picture and only the backside was showing.

While in Italy another important friendship Degas made was when he met Gustave Moreau. Moreau was a painter raised in the academic tradition who favoured large biblical or classical subjects, treated with great attention to detail (Copplestone ). Moreau drew pastels with bright colors and Degas was inspired by this. Many of Degas' finest works were pastels. It would not be an exaggeration to say that Degas was himself one of the finest of all pastellists (Copplestone ).

In 186 at his father's insistence Degas went back to Paris. Here his circle of friends was a group of artists who called themselves the Impressionists. They included Claude Monet, and Edmond Duranty, both well renowned painters. They thought that any work should be more revealing to a person's temperament, age, and as whether he was coming from work or a lovers rendezvous (Encyclopedia of art 168). It is at this time that Degas starts to paint more real life scenes instead of the classics. In Paris in 187 Degas had his first Impressionist exhibition with Monet and Renoir. The title of the show was called Exhibition of the Impressionists. An impressionist artist's aim was to create an impression of a scene or subject like a photograph. The Impressionists wanted to make it a picture of real life with no frill. It is a style of painting originally developed in France in the 1870's with Degas and his group of artist friends. At this showing Degas work received mixed reviews. Some critics detest them, while others write about him favorably and name him the leading figure among the new group of artists (www.metmuseum.org. Chronology of the artists life 4).

Degas did not consider himself an Impressionist. He liked painting urban surroundings and the human body in motion while the other painters liked to paint nature. Many of the Impressionists thought that impressionist art required one to work outdoors, directly in view of nature in order to get truthful light and atmosphere. Degas actually mocked this idea that an impressionist artist had to work outside. Degas is reported to have said "Why would I painting is not a sport" (Coppelstone 1). But like the Impressionists he painted and drew the real world in a real, truthful light as if from a photograph.

Degas developed many interests that affected his work but one of the most significant was Horse racing. Horse racing started in France and the exclusive Jockey Club was founded in 18. In France, horse racing had the stigma of being very snobby and being a social activity for the rich. Of the Impressionist artists only Manet and Degas painted horseracing. This is probably due to the fact that none of the other impressionist artists could aspire to the required social level of the Jockey Club. Degas went to horseraces a lot but his paintings of jockeys and the races were done in the studio or from photos when available. The birth of photography was an aid and inspiration for Degas giving him visual information he hadn't had before. It captured the images for him so he could make compositions of them at a later date. Degas produced over 45 paintings, 0 pastels, 50 drawings, and 17 structures on horse racing. He painted At the Racecourse with Jockeys in Front of the Stands (C.186-187). Degas painted the practicing before the race so it would seem real. This painting is interesting because it shows Degas use of natural light by his painting of the silhouette of the horses and the riders.

In 1870 Degas work was interrupted by the Franco-Prussian war where he volunteered to serve in the artillery. As a result Degas believed he got an eye disease. This eye disease slowly affected his work and eventually blinded him.

In the 1870's Degas started to paint Ballerinas. He was attracted to ballet because of his passion for music and he was always at the opera and concerts. The opera house provided unusual viewpoints like light and dark artificial lighting. He liked juxtaposition of illusion and reality. Degas would paint the dancers rubbing their ankles or fixing their tutus. He would always paint something that let you know that it is just a performance without special effects and without magic. He would draw the orchestra or a man standing backstage waiting for his part stretching. Degas would let you know the real life story. Degas never had known relationships with women but some say he may have had relationships with ballerinas. One of his most famous paintings is The Dance Class (c.187-1875). Here the dancers are supposedly watching the dance master while reading letters and scratching their backs. The water can under the piano gives the picture humor. The picture is interesting and it shows what a real dance class was like back in the late 1870's. Degas used little color in this painting. The only color he used was the color of the sashes around the dancers waists. Another creation he made was the sculpture of the Little Dancer Aged Fourteen (c.1880-1881). When it was exhibited it received mixed reviews. Some people loved it while others thought it was a poorly dressed ratty-looking girl. This sculpture was made with real ribbon and tutu.

Degas had no financial necessity to sell his works but when he did he might ask for them back to make some changes and he would forget to return them. Some people think he would do that on purpose because he did not like to part with his work. Once in a letter to his friend Ludovic Halevy, Degas complains that he has to draw ballerinas over and over because of the demanding public. However, Degas never painted dogs or flowers because he had asthma.

In the 1870's through 1880's Degas was fascinated with people doing daily chores. Degas was not poor so he had no financial necessity to do chores. Everything was done for him. Although much of Degas art depicts the working classes, or at least working women, he had little sympathy for or understanding of any class other than his own. His interest in working class-women was the detached curiosity of an anthropologist studying the ways of a primitive tribe (Bade 8).

In the 1880s Degas also started to paint "women et toilettes." He would paint women drying their hair or washing themselves. He painted things as if you were looking through a keyhole. He says "Hitherto the nude has always been represented in poses which presuppose an audience, but these woman of mine are honest, simple folk, and unconcerned by other interests than those involved in their physical condition" (Bade 0). In 1886, Degas created a painting called After the Bath, Woman Drying her Feet. The person viewing the picture is given the feeling that they are sneaking a glimpse of the person in the picture without their permission. This picture was shown in the Impressionist show of 1886.

Caf� concerts were amongst the most popular thing, of Parisian entertainments. Degas enjoyed going to them. At the Caf� concerts there were jugglers and magicians and prostitutes. He felt the concerts shared many visual features with the ballet paintings. There are the same striking divisions between the dark orchestra pit, audience and brightly lit stage; the same magical effect of gas footlights dissolving the solidity of forms on stage (Bade 6). One of the paintings Degas created is called Caf�-Concert, Les Ambassadeurs (c. 1876-77). This painting is a pastel over monotype. Monotype is using wet ink painted on a non-absorbent piece of material such as metal and then pressing it onto paper to make a print. It usually makes only one print. In this particular painting after Degas printed his monotype he colored over it with pastels. This picture shows a lively social life with singers and music. The picture suggests that people are having a good time.

In Degas later years he started to paint in a more cubist style and to paint and draw some landscapes. He became obsessed with photography as an aid to his art. He also had models come to his studio so he could copy them for his paintings and sculptures. One of the more cubist paintings he did was Landscape (c.18). This picture gives you the feeling of monotone and heaviness since it is done in black and white oil. A painting such as Landscape, presents the structure of the buildings in a way that seems to anticipate the cubist vision, (drawing through the use of cubes) thus underlining the point that even toward the end of his career Degas' approach to art was innovative (Sutton 01)

As Degas grew older and due to his failing eyesight, he started to sculpt and model with wax over metal armatures. These sculptures remained in his studio and it was not until after his death that they were they cast into bronze. He says to a friend" I'm always modeling with wax" (Encyclopedia of Art 17). At this stage of his life he also favored pastels over paint.

Throughout his life, Degas was always admired by friends and family for his great wit and charm but he could sometimes insult you or make fun of you in his humor. In his old age, he became very antisocial and he hated mankind. He was always anti-Semitic but he never let his racial opinions color his art. In his later years he was always lonely and had broken ties with his lifelong friend Ludovic Halevy due to his anti-Semitic views. He sometimes wished he had a wife and children. Degas stated he never married because "I would have been in mortal misery all my life of fear my wife would say, "that's a pretty thing" after he'd finished a picture" (Bade 5).

On September 7, 117 Degas died. He left his art to his friends and cousins. At one point in his life Degas had such a collection of artwork that he considered opening his own private museum. Much of his work was also auctioned successfully and purchased by museums. Degas hated conventional prettiness and there is great irony in the fact that dancers now adorn table mats, greeting cards, and jigsaw puzzles and have in fact become harmless and pretty (Bade5).

WORK CITED

Bade, Patrick. Degas. London Studio Editions, Ltd., 1.

Boggs, Jean Sutherland; Loyrette, Henry; Pantazzi, Michael; Tenterow, Gary,

Metropolitan Museum of Art and National Gallery of Canada.

"Chronology of the Artist's Life- Degas" Metmuseum. 4 March 001

http//www.metmuseum.org.

Coppelstone, Trewin. Edgar Degas. New York Regency House Publishing Limited,

18

"Degas, Edgar." New International Illustrated Encyclopedia of Art. 168 ed.

"Gardens of the Sunlight/Edgar Degas" Art.koti. 4 March 001 http//art.koti.com

Pioch, Nicolas. "Degas, Edgar," Webmuseum, Paris June 16. 4 March 001

http//www.ibiblio.org.

Sutton, Denys. Edgar Degas Life and Work. New York Rizzoli International

Publications, Inc., 186.

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Foreshadowing mrs emilys insanity

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The crime Miss Emily commits is grotesque. No person in their right mind would murder someone and then sleep with their dead corpse. In order for the reader to see this as reasonable Faulkner foreshadows Emily's insanity throughout the story. When the reader believes Emily's insane then the reader can believe the crime she commits.

In the first paragraph the reader is given a glance of the town's true opinion of Miss Emily. Even though everyone in the town goes to her funeral, Faulkner shows their presence is more out of curiosity than care. Following her father's death, the town feels sorry for Miss Emily and they see Emily as their "fallen monument". Perhaps the town doesn't appear truly concerned for Emily because they know something the reader doesn't.

. As the story progresses, Faulkner continues to foreshadow Emily's insanity. When her father dies she refuses to accept his death and acts as if nothing were wrong. She keeps his dead body in her home for three days and refuses to allow the town to bury him. They don't say she is insane yet, only that she has to "cling to that which had robbed her". This is a second sign of Emily's insanity.

Emily's refusal to pay taxes is another sign of her insanity. Emily is regarded as "a tradition, a duty, and a care," a responsibility to the town. Emily believes she doesn't owe any taxes because of a promise made by Colonel Sartois. When the next generation of politicians tells her she has to pay, she merely says "see Colonel Sartois", who any sane person of the town would know had been dead for quite some time.

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Faulker then uses "the smell' to show an additional mark of Emily's insanity. Emily's house smells so terrible the town complains to the judge, asking him to order her to clean up the smell. Emily however doesn't seem to be disturbed by the smell. She continues to live her 'normal' life inside her house all day.

Foreshadowing her insanity, all through the story, gives the reader anticipation to keep reading. By observing Faulkner's strategy more closely, the reader is able to expect Miss Emily to commit a sickening offense.

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