In patriarchal religions, divinity is male; hence men see an image of themselves in the divine, while women are denied this identification with divinity. What are the cultural consequences of this?

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The ancient Middle East was the birthplace of Christianity and Islam; these faiths came to have an immense impact on human culture and religious beliefs. In one form or another religion is found in all societies, it has had a strong hold over men and women for thousands of years. All religions seem to have similar characteristics; these involve symbolism that evoke feelings of reverence and awe. This essay will explore the ancient history of Egyptian religion that can be linked to Christianity and Islam. It will show how patriarchal religion has been used for thousands of years to control the thoughts and actions of women, and how ancient scriptures have been re-written to serve the interests of men. It will consider and discuss comments and theoretical perspectives made by leading feminist writers, which include Karen Armstrong and Elaine Pagels and also text taken from The Nag Hammadi Library (10).

Ancient Egyptian religion, gave Egyptians a way to make sense of the world around them, it explained things they didn't understand, for example, the wind the sun and the darkness of night. They didn't have thousands of years of scientific knowledge to call upon, so if these things were not brought about by human intervention, they had to be super human, and therefor a God. This was usually in the image of a male.

Ancient Egyptian text recount several creation myths, the earliest and most widely known describes a dark watery primordial chaos. Out of this emptiness came a family of nine 'creator' Gods which brought forth everything in the universe. Three descendants of these were Isis, a fiercely protected mother Goddess, Osiris, God of the underworld and Seth, their ambitious brother. Osiris took his sister Isis as his Queen and they bore a son Horus. This suggests that incestuous relationships were considered normal and if Gods supported the act, Pharaohs could also. '…Osiris taught humankind how to build towns and temples he also laid down fair and just laws' (Cotterell & Storm 107) Whilst Isis '…helped Osiris civilise Egypt by teaching women how to grind corn, spin and weave'. (Ibid, p.) The women of the day had few deities to look up to; the ones they did were associated with fertility and nurturing. Religion then as now was used for social control and reflected women's social status, having said this, Isis was one of the Egyptians most revered Gods. The fundamental story of these three Gods is that Seth fought his brother Osiris and killed him. ' …When Isis heard what had happened to her husband and brother she was overcome with grief…she found his body and performed a magical ritual whereby she restored his body to life.' (Ibid 07) Nawal El Saadawi is an Egyptian feminist, and believes that this story clearly implies female superiority, but men have interpreted it very differently. She argues that the religions that were oppressive to women developed as monotheistic religions, which is a belief in one God rather than many, and became predominant and that these religions '…drew inspiration and guidance from the values of the patriarchal and class societies prevalent at the time'. (El Saadawi 180106) Female oppression is due to the patriarchal system and not necessarily due to religion although it has played its part. These three Gods became the major players in Egypt's central religious myth.

Not only were the Gods worshiped but also God Kings known as Pharaoh, they ruled over Egypt from around 100 BC, Pharaoh's in all dynasties believed themselves to be nothing less than divine. There were few female rulers, and no priestesses served in the temple, this contributed to and re-enforced the idea of male domination. Cleopatra was clearly the exception, who incidentally had only male advisors and courtiers. Her divine rule did absolutely nothing for women's social status. The same can be seen in the managerial positions that women hold in today's society. Once a woman has gained top position, which is difficult to do, she does not want nor need competition especially from another female. Therefore these rivals are kept to a minimum within the workforce. Custom writing service can write essays on In patriarchal religions, divinity is male; hence men see an image of themselves in the divine, while women are denied this identification with divinity. What are the cultural consequences of this?

Karen Armstrong argues that in many countries around the world there were few effigies of Gods as men, and as many societies developed religious beliefs, there were also many different Gods and Goddesses, and the Mother Goddess played a crucial role. She indicates that the same Goddess was known by different names in different countries and says she was;

' …absorbed into the pantheons of deities and

remained a powerful figure. She was called

I nanna in Sumner, in ancient Mesopotamia,

Ishtar in Babylon, Anat or Asherah in Canaan,

Isis in Egypt and Aphrodite in Greece. In all

these cultures people told remarkably similar

stories about her to exoress her role in their

spiritual lives.'

(Armstrong, 1 8)

She also argues that in some societies, women, within most religions have not always been subordinate, and in early history 'women were considered central to the spiritual quest' (Armstrong, 1). In the Middle East archaeologists have uncovered numerous symbols of the Great Mother Goddess. She was usually pictured as a naked pregnant woman this represented the mysteries of fertility and life and as Armstrong puts it

'The earth produced plants and nourished

them in rather the same way as a woman gave

birth to a child and fed it from her own body.

The magical power of the earth seemed vitally

interconnected with the mysterious creativity

of the female sex'

( Armstrong, 1 8 ).

She also implies that the position of women in religion began to decline due to war and invasions. The invaders brought with them male- oriented mythology and the Goddesses were replaced with powerful masculine deities. This began as early as the fourth century BC The final death of the Goddess came with the acceptance of monotheism. Von Kellenbach (14), a German feminist, criticises this belief and points out that there is no written historical record in any culture to suggest that there was a time when women were in a matriarchal paradise. The evidence rather suggests that in cultures where there were female goddesses, women were not given a greater role in society, in fact, the goddesses themselves had a lesser role than the gods.

Early in the first century Jesus of Nazareth began his first ministry and after he was crucified his followers fanned out across the empire sowing the seeds of a total transformation of belief, thus the Christian faith spread. Four hundred years would pass before this faith was accepted. This was a new monotheistic faith that took over the land, and this movement would spell ultimate doom for the Gods and Goddesses of the Pharaohs. There are many parallels between Egyptian religion and Christian teachings. The most striking similarities can be found in religious icons, such as Isis and her son Horus (the translation of this name means the one who is above) and the Christ child who sits on the lap of his mother Mary. This is also shown in the ancient Egyptian stories of the God Osiris who was killed and brought back to life and the story of Jesus who died on the cross and then miraculously resurrected. In the minds of the Egyptian Christians there would surely be parallels, this made it easier to accept a new belief and preserving Egyptian religious ideologies and traditions was a way of keeping control and maintained patriarchal beliefs and misrepresentations.

The Old Testament Bible in the first instance was translated from ancient texts, these being the writings of scholars of the time, as so was the New Testament. However in 145 in Upper Egypt a large number of primary Gnostic scriptures were unearthed which were once thought to have been completely destroyed by the early orthodox Christians; scriptures such as the Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of truth. These are now referred to as The Nag Hammadi library. In many of these texts God is imaged as a unity of masculine and feminine elements, it is no wonder that the orthodox faith felt the need to rid society of these books. They tell quite a different story of Jesus and God. It says that Jesus prayed to the divine Father and Mother. These teachings obviously went against the patriarchal system prevalent at that time. It also tells of Mary Magdalene, they show her as an outspoken and trusted confidant of Jesus. She was one of his closest disciples, and to her he entrusted special teaching. They also suggest that Jesus had an emotional attachment with Mary.

'...the companion of the Saviour is Mary Magdalene. But Christ loved her more than all the disciples, and used to kiss her often on her mouth. The rest of the disciples were offended... They said to him, Why do you love her more than all of us? The Saviour answered and said to them, Why do I not love you as I love her?"'

(Gospel of Philip, 6- 64)

Pagels 18 xv

This is not so in the New Testament, she is depicted as a devoted but timid follower of Jesus and was associated with the unnamed sinner who anointed Jesus' feet in Luke 76-50. Mary the disciple and teacher had become Mary the repentant whore. This fiction was invented to undermine her influence and with it the appeal to her apostolic authority to support women in roles of leadership. This kind of ideology still appertains today in the Catholic Church, their reason for not allowing women to be ordained into the priesthood is, they say Jesus had no female disciples. Christian tradition has seriously damaged women's capacity to contribute fully to the faith.

In 1870 the Church of England formed a committee to do what had been done many, many times before this was to revise and update biblical texts. This committee contained no women, and according to Professor Karen King, this meant that texts could be re written and alternative traditions could be invented and that every variety of woman's leadership was eventually declared heretical and the evidence was erased or suppressed. Anthony Giddens argues that

'Christian religion is a resolutely male

affair in it's symbolism as well as its hierarchy.

While Mary the mother of Jesus, may sometimes

be treated as if she had divine qualities, God is

the father, a male figure and Jesus took the

human shape of a man. Woman is portrayed as

created from a rib taken from a man'.

(Giddens, 17 44)

There are many accounts of woman's association with the Devil; the story of the Fall in Genesis states that man was perfect before the fall. Eve is labelled as the temptress, the sinful one, and was the first to sin in the Garden of Eden. The serpent (the Devil) seduced her and then she seduced Adam into disobeying Gods wishes. Hence this burden has been on women ever since, and of course Adam did not reciprocate. God's judgement to Eve was

'and unto the woman he said, I will greatly

multiply thy sorrow and thy conception

and thy desire shall be to thy husband,

and he shall rule over thee.

(Genesis 16)

Many feminists and sociologists would scorn this verse and say that this was mans way of justifying women's place is society. There are many female characters in biblical stories but the prime parts are reserved for males. The texts do not indicate that at any time there were female disciples, and there is no female equivalent to Moses or any strong leading character. Thus women do not accept that they have leadership qualities.

Carlson Brown et al (18) argues 'that historical Christianity defined women as inferior, subordinate, and prone to the demonic' (p.7) and that these images have justified limitless violence against women whenever they crossed the male will at home or in society. The social consequence to this is that society assumes that when women are abused within marriage, that they themselves are responsible and have asked for it and therefore can receive no sympathy. The Catholic Church has much control over women's reproductive power, they decree that they should accept their pregnancies as God's will. This is all very well but the church is not willing to provide sustenance or money to ensure these children are well looked after. It is usually the mother who has to make the sacrifices. Their moral theology defines her sexuality as the debt of her body which she owes to her husband in the marriage contract. She is bound to serve him sexually, on demand, no matter what her own physical disposition may be. This again can be traced back to the old scriptures of how a man owned his wife. There have been many reactionaries who have resurrected the myth of women's inferiority based on their own interpretation of the Bible, so there must be an alternative way of interpreting scripture in a non sexist fashion.

This could take the form of Vertical inclusive language this is language that equally reflects both male and female aspects of God. Christian scripture and tradition has almost exclusively used masculine language, Father, Lord, King, He, despite the fact that Christian theology maintains that God has no gender. According to the theology, Gods divinity contains the perfections of both the male and female. However, because God revealed Gods self as male, Christianity has made masculine language normative in the description of God. Promoters of inclusive language argue that the use of masculine terms demonstrates and perpetuates patriarchy and sexism. Their solution would be the equal use of gendered terms. For example the use of Mother and She along with Father and He, and replacing of gendered terms with ungendered terms such as Parent and Monarch. Also, Jesus Christ could be called the Divine Child instead of Son of God. '…We must learn to speak to and about God in the feminine; …and we must learn to image God in female metaphors' (Schneiders 18670). This will enable future society to accept women as equals. The concerns of those who reject this idea say that inclusive language is political and is not a natural linguistic phenomenon. This kind of language is hard to maintain, as it has to be prompted.

The bible is a source of great influence, not only to Christians; the Old Testament influences other religions, for example Islam. The Qur'an sees itself as the culmination of the biblical tradition. Hence biblical attitudes towards women are important. Women's second-class status is very often related natural body functions, which are menstruation and pregnancy. For instance Muslim women are not allowed to touch the Qur'an, pray or visit the mosque whilst in either of these conditions. As women are in either of these conditions at least once a month, their social and psychological state must be at constant turmoil. Other written examples are the commandments revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai, which interestingly mention adultery twice. 'Thou shall not commit adultery' (Exodus 014) then a few verses later 'Thou shall not covert your neighbour's house; thou shall not covert your neighbours wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour' (Exodus 017). The repetition has a simple explanation, the first verse speaks of sexual immorality, while the second speaks of coveting one's neighbours property, among which wife is included. In ancient times slavery and marriage for women were albeit the same and women were often reduced to poverty. In today's society this also appertains, as the majority of Muslim wives are not expected to work. An explanation for this is, '…if a woman becomes self-sufficient and can singly support a family; resources from the father are no longer needed'. (Nassan, Z 186) This does become possible with industrialisation and where women do work, it has been blamed for the breakdown of traditional family structure, however families are not broken up by modern economy but by their patriarchal structures. Much of human history has been patriarchal, and patriarchy does tend to view women as property.

In conclusion, traditionally, religion does not seem to be good for women, and has tended to side with the status quo that keeps women in their place as being dutiful, domestic and dependent. The subjugation of women in this way helps maintain the belief that they are unequal, whilst men have the great advantage of having a God endorse the code he writes, and that code uses divine authority to support male dominance. Unfortunately, from a woman's perspective overcoming social injustices and human sacrifice are seen to be integral to spiritual life. Consequently no matter how much women have been devalued and subordinated, religion gives them the false belief that they will be rewarded in heaven for their suffering . After thousands of years the ideologies in patriarchal theology is deeply entrenched and it can be argued that without moral beliefs and shared values, there would be no social order and religion reinforces this. However scriptures have been re-written and re-invented by men for their gain, nevertheless what is man made can always be changed; and If women disapprove of a system, they must stay in it and change it. This will create a more balanced approach to life for both men and women in all creeds and denominations.

Bibliography.

Abdullah, Yusuf Ali; (18), The Meaning of The Holy Qur'an. Maryland Amana Corporation.

Armstrong, K; (1), The end of silence Women and the Priesthood. London Fourth Estate.

Carlson Brown,J & Bohn, C; (18), Christianity, Patriarchy and abuse A Feninist Critique. Canada Pilgrim Press

Cotterell, A, & Storm R; (1), The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology. Great Britain Anness Publishers Limited.

Daley, M; (185) The Church and the Second Sex. London Beacon Press.

De Beavuvoir, S; (15), The Second Sex. London David Campbell Publishers Ltd.

El Saadawi, N (180), The Hidden Face of Eve Women in the Arab World. London Zed books.

Giddens, A; (17), Sociology. rd Ed. Cambridge Polity Press.

Giddens, A; (001), Sociology. 4th Ed. Cambridge polity Press.

Haralambos and Holbourn, (000), Sociology. 5th Ed. London Harper and Collins Publishers limited.

King James Version, The Holy Bible. London Collins' Clear-type Press.

Pagels, E; (180), The Gnostic Gospels. London Wiedenfeld and Nicolson.

Robinson, J; (10), The Nag Hammadi Library. rd Ed. New York Harper Collins.

Von Kellenbach, (14) Anti Judaism in Religious Feminist Writing. Atlanta Scholar Press.

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Journal Close Passage

Deliverance

I decided to choose this passage because it stuck with me as i kept reading on through

the book. Although it was very early, pg. 4, i seemed to be thinking back and remembering it.

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This is because i also believe in what Lewis is saying in the passage. If I had to give the passage

a theme it would definately be survival. It starts off with Ed, discussing life with Lewis, Ed says

that he is a get-through-the-day-man. He gives this saying a metaphor. He says its like sliding,

Ed explains to Lewis that sliding is like living by anitifriction. You find somthing modest you can

do, grease it on both sides and slide. I think Ed is basically saying that he lives life just for the

sake of living. Being a completely boring and dull person and just do as much as it takes to get

by, kind of guy. Lewis on the other hand disagrees and thinks that madness should be flirted

with and that is the way man was intended to live. By being wild and adventurous, and this is

why Lewis is so keen on going on this canoe trip. He wants to have to survive and be tested

by the elements. The passage is about Ed and Lewis talking to each other about survival. Lewis

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he might have to take to the hills. Ed on the other hand doesnt believe in this and thinks that

Lewis has hopes of being a hero by keeping the human race alive. I also believe in what Lewis

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are still in existence they are going to have to survive. One thing i dont agree with however, is

that this will happen soon. I think that this will occur many years into the future. This was an

intersting passage it really made me think about why humans are here and what i would do if this

occurred. I hope i would be one of the few who could have the will power, like Lewis, to

SURVIVE!

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Le'Annetti's

Unlimited

Do my essay on Business Plans CHEAP !

Fashions

Plus LLC

Final Project

Marketing Management 401

Professor Joseph Jang

Lorenda B. Levy

JoAnn Cain

Cynthia Roberts

Lisa Rooney

Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary

. Introduction

. Mission Statement

4. Vision Statement/Target Market

5. Differentiation

6. Marketing

7. Marketing

8. Marketing

. Marketing

10. Competition Analysis/Marketing Strategy

11. Organizations SWOT Analysis

1. Revenue Projections

1. Revenue Projections

14. Revenue Projection

15. Conclusion

Le'Annetti's Unlimited Fashions Plus

Executive Summary

Our names are Lorenda Levy, JoAnn Cain, Lisa Rooney, and Cynthia

Roberts. We recently graduated from Peirce College and earned our

Associates Degree in Business Administration and are continuing our

education to earn our Bachelors Degree in the same field. Several years ago

the four of us decided on a whim that we would combined our assets and

open a clothing store called the "Le'Annetti's Unlimited Fashions Plus," which

is located in Center City and our second location is in the Northeast section of

Philadelphia.

It is a Retail Clothing Store that has been in business for the past

five years. These particular stores are unique, because they offer an exclusive

line of plus size clothing, shoes, accessories and other personal needs to both

the male and female in unlimited sizes. We guess you would like to know what

made us decide to establish a business for plus size people. Well! Let me tell

you a short story. There was once upon a time when we ourselves wore a

size eight and were able to go into any clothing store, grab any item we were

interested in, pay for it, and hurry back but as years progressed so did our

weight and it made it more difficult for us to buy fashionable clothing that

was appeasing to our taste.

Then it came to us that "If we felt this way, then we were quite sure that

there are others that feel the same," So we decided to do something about it, and

that's how our business came into existence.

Introduction

Le'Annetti's Unlimited Fashions Plus has been in business from

18 to the current year of 00. We currently have forty employees in

both of our retail stores. We also sell our line of merchandise on the Internet and

throughout our Le'Annetti's catalog, which can be purchased at $5.00 a copy.

Our Management Team consist of, The President and Chief Executive

Officer (CEO) Lorenda B. Levy, Chief Finance Officer JoAnn Cain, Fashion

and Business Consultant Cynthia Roberts, and Marketing Research and

Analysis Lisa Rooney. Our business made profit but was not as productive

as we desired it to be in the fiscal year from February-18 January 000,

because we were new to the business and was not that well known, but since

then we have been successful in the 001 - 00 fiscal year. We have made a

net profit of $50,000.

We had to take into consideration of how we would model our business,

so first we established what the wants and needs of the customers are, then we

scrutinized wholesale manufacturers that are able to best provide us with the

quality of goods at a reasonable cost.

Secondly, the merchandise that we purchase from the various manufactures

at a wholesale cost will be placed into our stores to be sold to our customers at a

retail price, so we concluded that we would model our organization Business to

Consumer. (BC)

Mission Statement

The Le'Annetti's Unlimited Fashions Plus is a retail-clothing store

specializing in unique, fashionable clothing, shoes, accessories, and other personal

needs for the plus size person. Our mission is to provide an entertaining, fun, and

knowledgeable atmosphere to customers who experience nothing but a pleasurable

day of shopping. Feeling good about your-self is as much about storytelling and

nostalgia as it is about the right clothing and accessories. The Le'Annetti's

Unlimited Fashions Plus adds value by creating a comfortable social setting in

a retail location.

We take care of our employees; that is, we pay them well and give them a

share of profits. We respect all customers who respect our store and people, and

show respectful diligence toward those who choose not to show our people

respect.

We work as a team, not as a socialist Mecca. Our people are paid

according to their skills and abilities. In addition, each employee will have the

option of company-sponsored training courses and outside curricula that builds

on their skill sets.

Our customers are our most important assets, and we rely on

them for feedback. We do not, however, send out unsolicited surveys to

unsuspecting customers. We will accept in-store suggestions and test them for

results.

We have a plan and our goals are clear To create a fun, entertaining, and

respectful retail environment that generates sales of clothing and other

accessories for the fashionable plus size person.

Vision

Our vision is to become popular nationwide as being known as an

organization that gives plus size individuals the comfort of being able to

continually come into our retail stores and feel welcome, not out of place. Our

motto is! "No Customers, No Production, No Profit" so our goal is to

continue to satisfy our customers. We also realize, that we are in a world where

there are an enormous number of Pre-teens, who are a forgotten number when

left with clothes suited to their style and age. We are hoping that within the next

two, or three years we will have this in place.

Target

We knew which group of people we wanted to target but we had to take

into consideration of the age group. Because 16 year olds are in high school, and

many of them work, we decided that the main group of Individuals that we would

aim to target would be the Middle, Upper Class, plus size individuals, both

male and female, between the ages of 16 years of age, to adult, that finds it

difficult to locate a retail store that caters specifically to their sizes in the fashion

world.

Differentiation

We found out during our research that 70% of retail stores today

tend to cater to the petite size individuals and have a limitation in the

larger sizes that they offer to the plus size consumers. Our retail stores will offer

unlimited sizes to both the male and female gender.

The fashions that are offered to the plus size customers are usually unappealing, straight

flowered, tank dresses for women and plaid pants for men. We will offer them detailed designs,

appliqu�d embroidery, and fashionable prints unlike any other that has ever been

offered to them. Our line of shoes though they may be narrow, or wide width

would also be made up of a nice selection of designs, colors, and styles. We will

also provide them with all the personal necessities and or accessories, for

example bras, jocks, pantyhose, scarves, handbags, etc.

In our investigation we have not found a retail store in existence that

provides this level of service on the same premises, where Plus Size customers

have the advantage of doing one stop shopping.

Marketing

We had to also come up with a strategy of how we would market our

business, so we figured due to our budget, we would use the TV and radio as

two sources of communication we would use them to our advantage on Thursday

and Friday's. We chose these two days in particular because most consumers

get paid around this time and are more willing to spend their money, so when

advertisements are exposed to them in this timeframe it is still fresh in their

minds. We would also put a colorful ad in the newspaper in the same timeframe

as we would our TV and radio advertisements.

We will have our employees stand outside our place of business to hand out

fliers along with a 0% off coupon. Then we thought we would do something that

was a little more unique, for example just as retail stores display their windows

with mannequins displaying their apparel, we also have mannequins to display our

attire, but the distinction from the others is that we have specially made

mannequins made up in plus sizes to place in windows, whereas in other retail

stores even though they claim to be plus size stores they display their attire on

petite size mannequins.

Our saying is, "Either you're a plus size store, or you're not." It's in our

opinion, that if you're out to target the plus size customer then go all the way by

making them also feel proud of being able to walk up to the window and getting an

idea of what an outfit may look like on them by having mannequins of similar sizes

as a window model.

We have also place our businesses on the web site. It is designed to give

the consumer brief description in regards to our business and merchandise. It

would also have live plus sizes individuals to model a selection of male and

female attire. We specialize in offering a line of clothing and shoes for plus size

individuals both males and females. Please be patient with us we give you an

idea of what type of merchandise we sell. We offer from a long line of sports,

casual, and eveningwear. Our merchandise consist of, men and women shorts,

shirts, blouses, jogging suits, swim suits, casual and evening, two and three-piece

skirt and pants suits. We sell casual and evening dresses, men and women

pajamas, elegant lounge wear, socks, stockings, fishnets, knee-highs,

thigh-highs, and pantyhose. We offer various shades and colors in our

stockings, such as taupe, nude, jet black, off black, navy blue, white, etc; and

textures, such as sheer, ultra sheer, and opaque.

We also sell women's half and full slips, girdles, garters, men and women

personal necessities and accessories, such as bras, panties, jocks, perfumes,

colognes, jewelry, hats, scarves, and handbags. In our organization, when we

use the phrase "Sizes Unlimited" that's exactly what we mean, our sizes range

from sizes 14 64, but if for any reason a customer comes into our place of

business and need a larger size than what is offered in our stores they are

guaranteed to have it. We will order it and have it readily available for them in 4

hours. Our shoes and sneakers come in various styles, colors, and sizes for both

men and women they can purchase them in sizes 5-B1EEE, if larger sizes are

requested they can also be ordered and available within 4 hours.

One important factor about our merchandise is the quality. Our apparel is

made with the finest materials, such as rayon, silks, gabardines, cotton, linen,

knits, wools, leather, etc. The same applies to our shoes and sneakers, Our

shoes are made of high quality leathers, suede, alligator skin, etc. Our sneakers

are mostly made of leather. We guarantee our customers if they can find the

same quality of clothing elsewhere, we will sell it to them at a 5% discount. The

holiday season is one of the productive and profitable times of the year, so we

began our holiday sales at least a week before our competitors, which includes a

free promotional gift and a 10% - 0% off discount on merchandise purchased by

our customers.

We offer "LeAnnetti's Unlimited Fashions Plus" credit cards with a

limitation of $00.00 for adults that can be used to purchase merchandise

online or on site within our retail stores. We also offer a Jr. credit card with a

limitation of $00.00 for our young adult starting from 16 18 with a contractual

agreement signed by their parents stating that they will assume full responsibility

for their monthly payments. We accept valid VISA, MASTERCARDS,

AMERICAN EXPRESS, and DISCOVER as another payment method.

"LeAnnetti's Unlimited Fashions Plus" retail stores are open 00am - 800

pm Monday-Fri and 10 00am -1000pm on Saturday.

We are located in the Center City and Northeast section of Philadelphia,

which is considered two of the busiest sections of the city. According to the

Census Bureau, as of July first 001 Philadelphia is a population of 1,41,81.

Therefore, although public transportation, such as the trolleys, subways, buses,

and Market-Frankford El Lines are convenient for our customers, we provide free

parking for those that choose to drive their vehicles, which is that of all ethnic

cultural groups. In reality what makes us successful over our competitors is the

fact that there is an overwhelming amount of plus size people in our nation and,

because our competitors limit their product by focusing on the petite consumers it

gives us the advantage edge. It is for this reason that we have loyal customers,

who continue to serve us, and our name is rapidly becoming known nationwide.

Competition Analysis

Direct Mail and Web Sales

· Big and Tall Plus and Fashions For Us the Plus sell plus size apparel and accessories to our target market. They are large corporate entities, each with powerful online and retail presence. Fortunately, they have not opened any retail stores in the Center City Philadelphia/Northeast Philadelphia area, so we count them solely as direct mail and Web competitors. We hope to achieve .5-1% of their gross yearly direct sales.

Retail Sales

· Big and Tall Plus #1 will be our toughest competitor, for they have already established themselves in the plus size fashion community. They have a very experienced and knowledgeable staff of expert climbers, and they are located in malls on the outskirts of Philadelphia near the Interstate that leads directly to Philadelphia. They carry 75-80% of the same fashions and accessories that we sell.

· Fashions For Us the Plus # sells limited fashions, they do not promote, and they do not market their products extensively. On the other hand, they sell food and carry more Generation X apparel than Big and Tall Plus. Their biggest weakness is small store size.

Marketing Strategy

· We will build strategic partnerships with other retail service companies.

· We will differentiate Le'Annetti's Unlimited Fashions Plus from competitors through aggressive advertising and promotional campaigns that demonstrate our community support and commitment.

· We will build retail store awareness through our direct mail and Web campaigns, leading to greater word-of-mouth marketing.

· We will become the number #1 Retailer for Plus size people

Marketing Research

· We will obtain market research through in-store customer comment cards and the local Chamber of Commerce.

Organization SWOT Analysis

Strengths

· Extremely strong relationships with distributors.

· Excellent staff who are well trained and customer attentive. They also get great discounts, increasing job satisfaction.

· An efficient, stylish retail store.

Weaknesses

· The struggle to build brand equity.

· The inability to provide instant gratification by having all sizes in stock.

· Forecasting fashion is difficult but necessary to profitability

Opportunities

· A growing segment of the market that is increasingly bothered by having to travel to Philadelphia for nice plus size clothing and accessories.

· An industry that seems immune to recessions.

· The ability to operate on lean overhead relative to competitors.

Threats

· The introduction of a competitor to the Philadelphia market with a similar business model.

· Completely misjudging where fashion is headed.

· Constant delays in the shipment of product or the unavailability of many of the advertised designs.

Competition and Buying Patterns

· Fashion Bug Plus This is a womens only clothing and shoe store. They have a nice selection of clothing but a poor selection of shoes. The shoe styles tend not to be cutting edge. The price point for the shoes is $0-$10.

· Saks Fifth Avenue This is a large, complete, department store. The store however, suffers from cluttered displays and a general sense of disorganization. Shoes here are $0-$10.

· Nordstroms This is a national franchise that only sells shoes, for both men and women. This company will sell knock offs, shoes just like name brands, but with their name on it. While this store has a huge selection, the quality of the shoes leaves a lot to be desired. This is somewhat understandable as the shoes typically sell for $1-$50. While the shoes are often good copies of famous brand, the execution is sometimes off. Many of the shoes that are made out of pleather and look like they were dipped in wax, giving them a tacky appearance.

Revenue Projections

Financials

This section will offer a financial overview of Le'Annetti's as it

relates to the marketing activities. Le'Annetti's will address break-even

analysis, sales forecasts, expense forecasts, and how those link to the market

strategy.

Break-even Analysis

Break-even Analysis

Monthly Units Break-even 58

Monthly Revenue Break-even $15,500

Assumptions

Average Per-Unit Revenue $60.00

Average Per-Unit Variable Cost $4.00

Estimated Monthly Fixed Cost $,00

Sales Forecast

The first month will be used to set up the storefront. Employees will

be hired and inventory will be purchased. There will be no sales activity

during the first month. The second month will begin to see sales activity and

it is forecasted that around month four sales will really begin to pick up. The

reason for this is that word will get out about Le'Annetti's and more and

more people will be coming in to check out the extensive selection.

Sales Forecast

Sales 00 004 005

Professionals $84,40 $158,745 $17,454

Housewives $54,861 $10,184 $11,05

Total Sales $1,6 $61, $84,54

Direct Cost of Sales 00 004 005

Professionals $,761 $6,48 $68,8

Housewives $1,45 $41,74 $44,88

Subtotal Direct Cost of Sales $55,705 $104,77 $11,80

Expense Forecast

Marketing Expense Budget

18 1 000 001 00

Advertisements $6,400 $7,500 $,000 $11,000 $14,000

Other $1,85 $,000 $,00 $,00 $4,100

------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------

Total Sales and Marketing Expenses $8,5 $,500 $11,00 $14,00 $18,100

Percent of Sales 5.1% .6% .4% 5.65% 6.68%

Contribution Margin $75, $147,658 $15,5 $165,0 $178,680

Contribution Margin / Sales 54.0% 56.7% 56.06% 65.65% 66.68%

Online Sales Online Sales (thousands) Growth over 5 years

18 $0. 0%

1 $44. 1%

000 $45. %

001 $55. 6%

00 $75. 56%

Total $4. 5%

Total Catalog Shopping Market Sales, 18-00

(Thousands of Dollars)

18 5.8

1 48.

000 55.

001 61.5

00 84.

In conclusion, we knew that when we decided to enter the business

world with plans of establishing our own organization, that we would be faced

with many challenges. It took an enormous amount of assets and planning if we

intended to be productive and profitable. It took time, determination, knowledge,

planning, patience, motivation, dedication, consistency, loyalty, and teamwork.

We had to first have a vision in what our goals were and what we hoped to

achieve. Then we had to have a plan of what steps and procedures it would take

to get it started and what resources we would need. We had to also be sure that

we were not investing by beginning a business that was similar to our

competitors, because we took the time to do the research and layout our market

plan for our business, which has helped Le'Annetti's Unlimited Fashions Plus to

be successful thus far.

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207 Years - The Australian Environment

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ABSTRACT

Environmental impact is clearly evident in Australia. By using the concept of an ecosystem, the term environment is defined as being composed of six interconnected areas. Although Aboriginals modified their landscape, particularly through their use of fire, the impacts they made did not substantially damage the environment. In contrast, the white settlers quite deliberately set out to tame, civilze, and exploit the land. The native flora was affected by clearing, grazing, and introduction of foreign plants. Likewise, the fauna has had serious competition from introduced animals. Over half of Australias wetlands have been destroyed in various ways, and our seas also fail to escape human impact. The land itself suffers from erosion, salinity, and desertification, as well as considerable change in the terrain. Industrial centres and the nations cars affect the atmosphere. Each of these issues are closely inter-related. The seriousness of the impacts of 07 years of white settlement make it clear that the supporting ideologies are no longer sustainable.

INTRODUCTION

In the last one hundred years man has reshaped the earth more than he did in all the preceding generations, and today he changes land, sea and sky more rapidly and radically than he ever did in the past. The sheer scale of our present impact on the environment confronts us ...1

Write my Essay on 207 Years - The Australian Environment for me

Indeed it does! And here in Australia no less than elsewhere. In fact David Attenborough estimates that eighty percent of Australia has been damaged since white settlement.

What have been the actions and ideologies behind the environmental impacts? What have the impacts been? Can the Australian environment continue to sustain the impacts? In answering the first question Aboriginal and white environmental ideologies are discussed; to illustrate the different land management approaches; to provide a baseline for the state of the environment before settlement; and to understand why the settlers interacted with the Australian environment as they did. The various impacts made upon the environment are then looked at to cover the second question. Finally, relationships between the topics, and implications for the environments future, are mentioned. Prior to discussing these issues it is necessary to define what is meant by the term environment.

DEFINITIONS

A general definition of environment is,

conditions under which any person or thing lives or is developed; the sum total of the influences which modify and determine the development of life or character.

Environment is also equated with surroundings. It is possible to have a variety of environments, political, social, economic, etc. But the one that comes most readily to mind is the physical environment. A definition of the physical environment is encompassed well by describing an ecosystem. An ecosystem is all of the organisms that comprise a community and the physical environment [surroundings] with which they interact - including soil, water, atmosphere, terrain, etc4

All components of the environment are interdependent, no one component of the system can experience change or human impact without far-reaching effects. For the purposes of this essay, environment, will be defined as a complex interaction of flora; fauna; wetlands (including rivers, lakes, underground water, etc) and oceans; land; and atmosphere.

ABORIGINAL IDEOLOGY

Aboriginals have been living in Australia for at least 60,000 years, and not surprisingly have a thorough understanding of the world they live in. In Bells words,

they explain to their children the significance of the land and its bounty, they impress upon children the integration of person, place and the Dreamtime heritage as one living complex whole5

Evidence of Aboriginal land management is apparent in many areas, for example, yams were collected in a fashion that allowed them to grow again, waterholes were regularly cleared and care taken not to foul an essential supply, and most importantly, their use of fire to clean up the country. Regular low-density fires were used to produce grasslands (both for grain and animal pasture); to protect already productive areas by burning fire-breaks; and to control food yields. Regular burning increased cycad kernel production up to seven times and ensured that the crop ripened at the same time.6The fact that they kept their own population in balance with their environment 7 is another example of understanding the limits of their land.

[M]uch of the vegetation encountered by early white settlers in Australia was not natural but artificial an Aboriginal artefact...8,

It was an environment that had been managed in a way that didnt cause ongoing damage. The emphasis was on maintenance and stability of the country.

WHITE IDEOLOGY

In contrast to the Aboriginal ideology of maintenance, the dominant white Australian ideology was (and still is) one of development, particularly economic development.Australia was set up as a colony and was expected to support itself and contribute to the progress of England. This was to be achieved by providing raw materials for Englands industries. Along with this desire to exploit and develop the new country came quite definite ideas of how to go about it. In eighteenth century England views of nature and human society based on scientific principles10, had developed, in fact Francis Bacon had gone as far as defining science as

aimed at mastery of nature, to subdue natural order11

Thus colonists believed that they had every right and even a duty to improve and tame nature. A perfect example of this is Bennetts comment in 184.

I could scarcely imagine a more interesting scene than to observe a country in the course of being rescued from a state of nature. 1,

The ideal landscape was the English park1, and they had every intention of creating this in Australia.14 Conservation ideas were rejected by the working class as a relic of the poaching laws of England and by landowners as an infringement on their exclusive rights.15It didnt seem to occur to anyone that the environment would need to be investigated. It was assumed that white techniques were superior and would improve the land here.

FLORA

What impact have white settlers and their beliefs had on each of the six areas identified above as constituting environment? Flora was one of the first things to be affected by the new comers. The Aboriginal inhabitants had over time cultivated a landscape that consisted of the finest grasses and richest herbage and resembled a wildflower garden.16This landscape appealed not only because of the similarity to English country parks but also due to its apparent suitability as grazing land. But Australian grasses were not accustomed to trampling by cattle and sheep hoofs nor to grazing without respite. According to Dovers the native pasture lasted about six years in most districts.17 As the soil became compacted from grazing new grasses couldnt regenerate and foreign weeds, (introduced largely by accident) which were used to harder soils, thrived and took over. Another major impact on Australian vegetation was timber felling. It took very little time for the colonists to realize the economic worth of Australian trees. In 1847 an official enquiry announced that the

Richmond river cedar country could not be cleared for five or six centuries18

In reality it took a bare thirty years. What started with the loggers was continued by settlers. So overzealous were the settlers in removing vegetation that Governor King had to forbid the felling of riverside trees in 180 due to the dangers of flooding and erosion that it caused.1The warning went unheeded and by 18 it was estimated that .5 million hectares (just over a quarter of N.S.W.) of forest had been cleared.0 This did not include the vast amounts of timber that had been, and would continue to be, used as fuel for gold, coal, and copper mines. The implications of this mass clearing, such as erosion, salinity, and extinctions, would not be realized for some time to come.

FAUNA

As the native grasses and the wooded areas disappeared, so too did the fauna dependent on them. Native animals now had to compete with introduced animals for food. Extinction now threatens approximately one third of our mammals.1 Although the introduction of foreign species - Australia has the largest population of introduced species in the world - is not the only contributing factor, it has had a considerable impact. Native animals not only have to contend with sheep and cattle, but also rabbits; goats; buffalo; horse and donkeys; camels; pigs; dogs; cats; and foxes. These last three dont destroy the indigenous animals habitat so much as prey on the animals themselves. Unlike the introduction of foreign plants, the introduction of animals was quite deliberate. In some cases it was as a food supply, in others it was simply to provide a target for hunting. The varied problems caused by introduced animals in Australia include; degradation of soil, vegetation and terrain, competition for native animals, and increased risk of disease. All are exacerbated by the fact that they are not native and so have no natural population control. Dovers comment impresses the situation.

In the Centre they turned the Mulga scrub into barren plains and theyve kept them barren ever since.

Since white settlement in Australia, 15.4% of the animal species known to live here have become extinct - a level that is three times higher than Canadas extinction rate.4

WETLANDS

The term wetlands includes rivers, lakes, swamps, soaks, tidal mudflats, the water tables, in fact all types of water catchments. Sadly

over half of Australias wetlands have vanished since European settlement and those that remain... are some of our most threatened natural areas5

Many of Australias wetlands have been drained, filled, and used as dumps. Rivers have been regulated by dams, and runoff from salt-affected, urban, or agricultural areas also cause damage.6 Many wetlands contained extensive reedbeds which acted as filters for silt, stopped soils from flowing out to sea, and recycled nutrients in the process. These have largely been destroyed by sheep and cattle. Perhaps one of Australias biggest problems is rising water-tables and the resulting salinity. As vegetation is removed, the tree roots no longer control the underground water levels, irrigation also contributes higher levels. As the water gets closer to the surface it evaporates and a salt residue is left behind. Dovers illustrates the problem with a photo taken in 10, of a dead orchard surrounded by what appears to be snow but is in fact salt.7Goudie provides statistics for changing water levels that were as deep as meters and are now less than a metre below the surface. He also states that once the area is replanted the water table and the corresponding salinity levels quickly fall.8 Another problem that has received considerable attention in recent years is blue-green algae. Caused by an increase of nutrients in the water (resulting from agricultural fertiliser runoff), and exacerbated by hot weather, blue-green algae outbreaks render the water toxic. The problem is not new, the first time it came to public attention was 1878 , but very little investigation has been done on it. In fact water quality and availability does not seem to be high on the public or governmental agenda - in 10 no-one on the National Health and Medical Research Council worked on water issues.0

Oceans, like other types of wetlands, have suffered impact from white settlement. Sailors in the first fleets noticed the abundance of marine life off Australias coasts, particularly whales and seals. Sealing was a brutal trade requiring the men to club their victims to death and rarely was any consideration paid to whether it was mating season, the seals were pregnant, nursing, or still cubs. The result of such indiscriminate hunting was the exhaustion of the Bass Strait sealing grounds by 1810. Within another ten years all southern seals were near extinction.1 Whaling began in 170 (predominantly by overseas companies) and lasted a bare fifty years. Two decades of American whaling in South Australia saw them take some 150,000 Southern Right Whales. By 178 the species was so depleted that they couldnt be accurately counted.

Another impact that we have on our oceans is the careless way we discharge substances into the sea. A variety of corporations dispose of waste directly or indirectly into the sea, the content of which, although controlled by standards, is not monitored closely enough. The stresses that the accumulated wastes of industrial society put on marine life must be immense. Effluent in particular effects sea grasses, which hold sands in place, feed marine life and produce oxygen. Off Adelaides coast 500 hectares of sea grasses are dead and the same amount again are badly damaged4- its no wonder that local councils spend a fortune shifting sand from one beach to another. The additional nutrients also promote the growth of the red algae that has become a sadly familiar feature of our beaches during summer.

LAND

Impacts on flora, fauna and water obviously contribute to the impact made on the land. One quite visible impact is erosion. Collins commented in 1804 that

rains washed the earth from steep hills cleared of timber and subjected to four or five years cultivation. Eroded soil filled the valleys.5

Erosion is a serious problem in the 10s, as we lose valuable top soil in dust storms. As early as 176 some people were recognizing that the reason for poor harvests lay in exhaustion of soil.6 Australian soils are naturally low in both phosphorous and nitrogen which means that the land can not sustain the continuous cropping that farmers carry out. By claiming large areas of land for intensive farming practises, such as wheat or cattle, the natural diversity of the environment is destroyed. The only things mono-cultures do support are increasing populations and the economy (although it fails both in the long term as this type of land use steadily reduces its viability). Erosion, salinity, and exhaustion of the soil all contribute to the problem called desertification. Areas that previously supported a variety of life have been so badly damaged that neither native plants, animals, or commercial crops can survive. Land so damaged becomes like desert in the sense of the Sahara ( a legacy of environmental damage in the far distant past), rather than the Australian deserts which in their undisturbed state teem with life. I was surprised in a recent visit to Central Australia, at the amount of vegetation compared to the bare and dusty wheat belt of South Australia.

AIR

Impacts on atmosphere are harder to gauge, but judging by the smog warnings that Melbourne issues on a regular basis during summer, the introduction of an industrial and motorized society in Australia has reduced air quality. Cars are a large contributor to air pollution - they produce 80% of the nitrogen oxides (one of the components of ozone pollution ) released.7Unfortunately Australia has almost no air pollution controls8, and what attempts are made are purely cosmetic. For example the Port Pirie Smelters, partly due to pressure from local residents regarding the lead levels in their childrens blood, built a new stack to reduce the levels of fallout. This new stack, considerably taller and wider, simply moved the problem further afield. The smog now falls on the surrounding farms - visibly.

CONCLUSION

The above paragraphs are not intended to be all-embracing. I have not mentioned the way the land has been ripped open by mining. I have also neglected the huge impacts of the sprawling urban centres along our coastlines. Damage done to areas such as coral reefs, mangrove swamps, the snow fields, the Maralinga area, or even human health, has also been passed-over. It should be evident though that white settlement has had a considerable impact on the flora, fauna, wetlands, oceans, land and atmosphere in Australia. No single impact can be looked at in isolation. Not only do the intricate relationships within an ecosystem cause each impact to affect another, but the political, social and economic ideologies must also be considered. There is a close relationship between food prices and soil erosion, timber felling and housing requirements, consumption levels and pollution. It is not possible to not make an impact, every action having a reaction, but the question must be asked whether Australia can continue to sustain the types of impact made in the last 07 years. The dominant ideology of development is being challenged by the notion of sustainable land use. The phrase, ecologically sustainable development, has appeared and is defined as being development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

But David Suzuki claims that no development in the usual sense is environmentally sustainable.40

Sustainability should be equated with stability, while development is equated with progress. Meanwhile the situation is coming to a head. The United Nations has announced that world grain production has now fallen below world consumption rates.41 The hole in the ozone layer is growing. The earths ecosystems are increasingly less able to cope with the disruption. Perhaps one of the biggest problems to tackle is the increasing population. Without population control we will experience More frequent droughts, more damaged crops and famines, more dying forests, more smog, more international conflicts, more epidemics, more gridlock, more drugs, more crime, more sewerage swimming...4, and more impact.

Even the N.S.W Premier agrees that Australia needs a low, stable population.

If you focus on the Murray-Darling river system and if your soils are blown across the Tasman when the weather turns bad and if our marginal farm land is collapsing, you just have got no alternative.4

In summary, the ideologies and actions that have caused the impacts mentioned above are not sustainable. We must learn how to

Take not too much of a land, wear out not all the fatness, but leave in it some heart.44 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Australian Wetlands Australian Nature Conservation Agency. May 1 (a pamphlet)

Bell, Diane Daughters of the Dreaming Melbourne, McPhee Gribble. 18.

Bell, Diane We are hungry for our land IN A most valuable acquisition Fitzroy, Vic. McPhee Gribble. 188.

Bierbaum, Nena Towards ecological sustainability Adelaide, Flinders University of South Australia. 11.

Bolton, Geoffrey Spoils and Spoilers a history of Australians shaping their environment North Sydney, NSW. Allen and Unwin. 1.

Butcher, B and Turnbull, D Aborigines, Europeans and the Environment IN A most valuable acquisition Fitzroy, VIc. McPhee Gribble. 188.

Cats in Australia Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. April 1. (a pamphlet)

Day, LH and Rowland, DT How many more Australians? Melbourne, Longman and Cheshire. 188.

Dovers, S Australian Environmental History essays and cases Melbourne, Oxford University Press. 14.

Edwards, WH Traditional Aboriginal Society South Melbourne, Macmillan. 187.

Endangered fauna Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service. May 10. (a pamphlet)

Erlich, PR and Erlich, AH The population explosion New York, Simon and Schuster. 10.

Feral Animals in Australia Australian Nature Conservation Agency. May 1 (a pamphlet)

Flood, J Archaeology of the Dreamtime Pymble, NSW, Angus and Robertson. 1.

Friends of the Earth Progress as if survival mattered. San Fransisco, F.O.E. 177.

Gammage, Bill Man and Land some remarks on European ideas and the Australian environment.. Radio 5UV, Department of Continuing Education. University of Adelaide. 178.

Goudie, A The human impact on the natural environment Oxford, Blackwell Publishers. 1.

Heycox, Kay A question of survival environmental issues for the 10s Crows Nest, NSW. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 11.

Lines, William J Taming the great south land a history of the conquest of nature in Australia North Sydney, NSW. Allen and Unwin. 1.

Kirkpatrick, J A continent transformed human impact on the natural vegetation of Australia Melbourne, Oxford University Press. 14.

Stetkete, Mike Nation cant handle more people Carr IN The Weekend Australian June -4th, 15. pp 1 & .

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Animal Testing

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Introduction

Today as I trot through the forests of my homelands, I feel free knowing that my life is free from torture. For me, there will be no new products tested on my body or any body of any organism. My life is safe now from all manufacturers and scientists. My life is no longer open for testing. Although this may be true for my generation and me in the year 050, it unfortunately was not for my ancestors.

Long ago, I was walking through the forests of my homelands. It was a cold morning; so I wasn't really worried about many predators, just something to eat. As I foraged, I began to sense something. My left ear turned 40 degrees to try and catch a sound to help me find out where and what it was I was hearing. Was it a predator or just a rabbit foraging like myself?

I wasn't sure, so I forgot about food for a little while and started to fear for my life. Little did I know that my life wasn't going to end with a quick bullet through the heart like other rabbits. I began to walk away from my foraging site; slowly, then faster and faster. Still not sure of what had made me so paranoid, I began to run. But as I jolted off, a net fell on me, preventing my escape. I began to frantically flop on the ground like a fish on the bank of a pond on a hot summer day. I finally gave up as I heard a human chuckle at me and mock my futile attempts at escape. My muscles ached and started to cramp because of the strain put on them from my useless attempts to shimmy away from the net I was so entangled in now. Cheap custom writing service can write essays on Animal Testing

As the end of the net was grabbed, I was dragged off; I did not fight because I knew it was useless now. The bed of the truck felt cold on my skin where my fur had been folded because of the tightness of the net against me. Still in shock because of the capture, I just laid there in a daze, staring blankly into the gray sky.

When the truck stopped, the human came around and grabbed the net with me in it and went into a building. The man took me in another room. There were bright lights in the room which seemed focused on a long metallic table. I was tossed onto it, and the metallic surface reminded of me of the lonely ride in the back on the truck.

A man with a long, light colored coat came over to me, observed me and said, "Thanks Charlie, this rabbit will do just fine for the tests."

Part of my fur was shaved off, then a man rubbed some kind of liquid like substance on me. It burned badly, but I could do nothing to tell him. I could not squirm, I was tied down and all I could do was lie there with the unbearable pain hoping it would end soon. It did, I fell asleep and did not wake up for what seemed a very long time, along with the other animals in that laboratory.

These tests are still being performed today, keeping the issue of new product testing alive. The history and background, the players and their positions, and possible resolutions and solutions, must all be explored in fully researching this issue.

History and Background

Throughout the history of biological testing, no subject has caused more debate than product testing. The issue of testing products on living things dates back near the 17th century (All 1). Around then, a philosopher named Rene Descartes stated that, "Animals are not able to reason and therefore do not feel pain and suffering," (All 1). During the same time period another famous philosopher by the name of Jeremy Bentham strongly disagreed with Descartes statements on animals. Bentham's belief on the issue of animal testing was that living creatures are able to suffer and enjoy and their ability or inability to reason is immaterial to the issue of the treatment of animals. Bentham's philosophy was, "The question is not, can they reason, nor can they talk, but can they suffer?"(All 1)

The animal testing of cosmetics began in the early 10's in response to a lady using Lash Lure mascara on her eyelashes (All 1). First, the woman experienced a burning sensation in her eyes. Soon after this, she suffered blindness and in due course died (All 1).

The moral dispute for using living things in experiments and testing pivots on the idea that animals are inferior to humans because they are not as intellectual as human beings and are incapable of reasoning (Animal Experimentation 1). Some people believe that this conclusion has a defect in that if we were to follow it, testing could begin on the mentally disabled or on children (Animal Experimentation 1). As human beings, we do not base value or give rights to people based on their intellectuality (Animal Experimentation 1). We give rights to people based upon empathetic knowledge that not doing so could cause undue pain, harm and suffering. Morally, we have a responsibility as humans to acknowledge the potential harm we cause to living creatures and should attempt to end their suffering.

The scientific side of this issue is a result of a century's work in using living creatures for medical studies in the search for cures and treatments of illnesses. Over the years the number of scientists who are finding animal testing to be obsolete and inaccurate has been rising steadily (Animal Experimentation 1). Scientists question the ability to accurately test and apply knowledge gained by animal testing to humans. Humans do have some of the same qualities and characteristics as those creatures used in laboratories, but the dissimilarities are very considerable (Animal Experimentation ). For example chimpanzees, although known for being closely related to humans because they have percent of the same genetics, are not vulnerable to some diseases including AIDS. In addition, they do not react similarly to humans when taking a drug or experiencing a medical procedure (Animal Experimentation ). Because of this, some humans have suffered greatly, died, or even suffered from a disease that has gone undiscovered (Animal Experimentation ). One example of this is with cigarettes. When experimented on using a variety of living creatures, scientists were led to believe that cigarettes did not cause cancer; therefore cigarette boxes went unlabeled with no cancer-causing label for many years (Animal Experimentation ).

In testing new products on animals to conclude the safety of the product, there are two primary methods; the LD50 (lethal dose) test and the Draize skin and eye irritancy tests (Protest 1). For more than 600 years these test methods have set the standard for safety with new products.

The LD50 test procedures were invented in 17 by J.W. Trevan. These tests were used to verify the potency of digitalis extracts, diphtheria antitoxin, and insulin and were used to determine proper dosages of certain drugs to obtain specified results for certain illnesses (Protest 1-). The LD50 test method is composed of a group of animals that are given the same substance, the number of times administered is not specified, and are observed until 50 percent of the animals in the test group have died. Observing the test animals till death occurred was to determine lethal doses of the substances. The substance is administered in a number of ways. The test group is either force-fed or placed in a gas chamber to test products for inhalation safety, or the substance is applied to the epidermis (Protest 1). The testing can potentially cause paralysis, severe distress together with convulsions, shock, and blood loss through the nostrils, mouth or anus. Within 5 years of the invention of the LD50 tests, the tests received major criticism on ethical and scientific grounds (Protest ). Despite the major criticism, tests continued because of the straightforwardness of the tests and the solid numbers that were quickly observed. The straightforwardness of the tests comes from the idea if the test animal(s) is dead, don't use the product, and if the test animal(s) is alive it is safe to use.

The other primary animal test method to determine safety is the Draize test, named after Food and Drug Administration (FDA) scientist John Draize (Protest ). During the early 140's, the FDA assigned Draize and other scientists to develop a testing method to determine skin and eye irritancy; a rabbit or species of rodent was usually used (Protest ). During the eye irritancy test, a substance was placed into the eye of the test animal and observation was done for up to seven days (Protest -). Observers looked for signs of opacity, ulceration, redness, swelling, hemorrhage, and discharge in differing intervals (Protest ). Just as the LD50 test received major criticism, so did the Draize test. Just like the LD50 test, the Draize test continued because of the straightforwardness of its procedures and its ability to produce raw numbers quickly (Protest ). A major company that used both tests was Revlon, which stopped in 10 because of animal rights campaigns (Protest ). Today, the Draize and LD 50 tests are diminishing due to the use of the in vitro test method known as Eytex. Eytex measures eye and skin irritancy using a vegetable protein from jack beans (Animal Testing 1). Although some companies may still use the Draize and LD 50 tests, they are now becoming the minority.

Players and Positions

The issue of new product testing seems to be only two-sided. People either support product testing on living things or oppose it. Either way, each player has a solid reason for his/her position.

Scientists and physicians are where most people look for solid numbers, for example if the test group lived or died, and factual information. Most researchers and scientists publicly speak out against tests or experiments done on animals stating their position by saying they are "outdated studies" (Drug 1). The tests are considered outdated because they have been used since the 17th century (All 1). In addition scientists speak out against these tests because of the inaccuracy of the results when compared to humans. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) believe that, "Human reactions to drugs cannot be predicted by tests on animals because different species (and even individuals within the same species) react differently to drugs. Britain's health department estimates that only one in four toxic side affects that occur in animals can actually occur in humans," (Drug 1). Even though the species used for the experiments are very similar to humans, the results can still vary greatly (Animal ). For example, penicillin would not be available today if it had been tested on guinea pigs, a common test animal, because penicillin kills guinea pigs (Drug 1). Another example is morphine. Morphine would not be available if it had been tested on cats, goats, or horses because although it is a depressant to humans, to such animals it is a stimulant (Drug 1). Difficulties occur when trying to relate data gained from animal tests to human beings, and these difficulties have caused multiple problems over the years (Animal ).

Animal rights activists and groups, such as PETA, support most scientists and physicians and share their position, but activists add a new dimension to the issue. Activists believe that product testing on animals should stop, not just due to inaccuracy of results but also because of the raw cruelty. With such test methods as the Lethal Dose 50 (LD 50) and Draize irritancy test that involve substances forcefully placed on.

A professional organization called American for Medical Progress Educational Foundation (AMPEF) has documented evidence supporting the testing of new medicinal products and procedures on animals and how beneficial and vital it has been to the human race. An example benefit would be polio. If it had not been for the tests done on animals with the polio vaccine, polio would still kill or cripple thousands of unvaccinated humans this year and years to come (Without 1). In addition, millions of American's diabetics who need insulin would not have insulin, and would be dead without the tests performed on animals to come up with insulin for diabetics (Without 1). Similarly without the testing of chemotherapy on animals, 70 percent of the children that suffer from lymphocytic leukemia would die (Without 1).

Over a million people who live in this nation would go blind in at least one eye because successful cataract surgery would not exist (Animal 1). Rehabilitation techniques would not be available for thousands who suffer disability from strokes or head and spinal cord injuries. Bone marrow and corneal transplants would not have been developed if not for the tests done on animals. Progresses in cardiology such as, coronary blood flow, coronary bypass methods and high blood pressure medication are another result of animal tests. The use of AZT to prevent HIV transmission from mother to newborn is another example of a medical advancement from animal testing. Such vaccines for smallpox, tetanus, diphtheria, polio, measles, lyme disease, hepatitis B and chicken pox have been available because of tests preformed on animals (Without 1). Over 80 medicines originally developed for humans after being tested ended up being used to treat animals instead of humans, medicines including anesthetics, painkillers, and animal tranquilizers, which means animal testing can benefit both animals and humans (Animal Research 1).

Other medications, procedures, or medical breakthroughs that resulted on tests done on animals and ended up being regularly used for treatment are skin grafts for wounds, organ or tissue transplantation methods, treatment for parasites, orthopedic surgeries, and for all pet-lovers the prevention of heartworms (Without 1). Millions of farm animals and pets are now safe from anthrax, distemper, canine parvorvirus, feline leukemia, and rabies thanks to researching on animals. With benefits for both for the animals and the humans, AMPEF makes a strong statement for the testing of products on animals.

Another activist that would like animal testing to continue is the National Association for Biomedical Research (NABR) (NABR 1). They believe, "Virtually every major medical adcance of the last century has depended upon research with animal," (NABR 1). An impressive figure, in favor of their argument, is that 70% of American's supports the necessary use of animals is research (NABR 1). Another figure put out by the United Sates Department of Agriculture (USDA), stated that 1,67,88 animals are used in biomedical research in 17 (NABR ). These animals include cats, dogs, non-human primates, guinea pigs, hamsters, rabbits, and other animals (NABR ).

One of the major concerns animal rights activist groups have with testing on animals is the pain that is endured during testing. However, research done by the USDA proves that percent of the tests done was not painful to the animals involved (NABR ). Also, in over 50 percent of the cases involving animal testing, the animals were not subjected to any painful procedures (NABR ).

Solutions and Resolutions

The scientists, researchers, and activists see only one way to solve the problem that they have with product testing on living things; it is to end product testing as soon as possible. But professional organizations like Americans for Medical Progress Educational Program (AMPEF) do not see why these tests must be stopped because of the benefits humans and some animals receive.

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) and the John Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT) have developed many solutions to the issue of product testing and have developed a program for students called CAATalyst (CAATalyst 1). CAATalyst was developed to teach students and their teachers about concepts to alternatives of animal testing.

CAAT has worked with scientists for over two decades to find new test methods to replace the use of animals for laboratory experiments, to reduce the quantity of animals tested, and to refine indispensable tests to stop pain and distress on both humans and animals (Untitled 1). CAAT supports companies or scientists trying to change their ways by supplying grants for scientists developing methods that do not include animals, workshops that talk about alternative test methods, and books, newsletters, and other publications (Untitled 1).

CAAT defines alternative tests by, "The three R's reduction, refinement, and replacement," (CAATalyst 1). A reduction alternative is a test that uses fewer animals (CAATalyst 1). A refinement alternative is a test that improves the well-being of animals being used for testing (CAATalyst 1). A replacement alternative is a test that uses an in-vitro or computer method instead of a whole animal (CAATalyst )." By law, companies must test some of their products on animals to insure the safety of consumers. A group of companies, in response to the concerns of people, donated one million dollars to fund a center dedicated to in- vitro, or literally meaning "in glass", and other alternative test methods rather than testing on animals to insure safety of thousands of animals (CAATalyst ).

A 000 animal rights activist newsletter called "All for Animals" listed some alternatives to animal tests. Much of the tests involve the in-vitro test method which actually means "in glass" (Animal Testing 1). The in-vitro test contradicts the in-vivo test methods, which actually means "whole animal" (Animal Testing 1). In-vitro tests have prospered because of the progress in tissue culture techniques and many other analytical methods (Animal Testing 1). Such tests are the Eytex, Skintex, EpiPack, neutral red bioassay, testskin, TOPKAT, Ames test, and the Agarose diffusion method (Animal Testing 1). The Eytex test is a test that measures eye irritancy by means of a protein alteration system; it has replaced the Draize eye irritancy test in some laboratories (Animal Testing 1). The Skintex test is a test that uses pumpkin rind to imitate the reaction of the human skin to a foreign substance (Animal Testing 1). The Skintex and Eytex tests methods can accurately test and measure up to 5,000 substances (Animal Testing 1). The EpiPack test method uses cloned human skin tissue to measure the potential harmfulness of a substance. Cloning is a relatively new procedure, which makes cloned human tissue difficult to find. The TOPKAT test uses computer software which measures toxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and teratonogenicity (Animal Testing 1). The effectiveness of such alternatives is not yet known, but such big companies as Avon and Estee Lauder use these alternative test methods (Animal Testing 1).

Those that are in favor of animal testing have only one solution; that is to continue with current practices without interference from activist groups or protestors. Such groups as AMPEF and NABR continue to lay bare the advances made possible by animal testing.

Conclusion

The history of new product testing has deep roots on both sides of the issue. Philosophers began arguing over the moral issue of testing on animals in the 17th century, and the actually animal testing dates as far back as anyone can remember (All 1). But with tests as gruesome as the LD 50 and Draize irritancy the opposition's argument is understandable (All 1). Although the LD 50 and Draize tests were after the times of the arguing philosophers such as Bentham and Descartes, I'm sure test methods were not less gruesome even further back in time for the philosophers' generations. Although the tests improved as far as the welfare for the animals is concerned, the amount of criticizism did not lessen. Instead more and more animal rights activist groups grew rapidly around the world, making product testing the issue it is today.

Such groups as PETA, ASPCA, All For Animals, and several Anti-Vivisection Societies around the world speak against companies that have tested on animals for many years. Those groups oppose testing on animals because of the raw cruelty of it; and I concur; there is nothing classy about watching a rabbit's eyes hemorrhage (Eye 1). However, major progress in the field of medicine, including diagnoses, medications, and treatments for diseases such as polio, measles, and smallpox have been developed as a result of animal testing. These diseases are among many known to have killed millions of people. Today we have vaccines that have nearly wiped out these diseases and other dreadful diseases because of animal testing (Without 1). The alternatives to product testing on animals seem to be more update usage in-vitro methods and computer software rather than just dropping some substance into or onto a living, breathing creature (Animal Testing 1).

As the researcher of this project,I find myself supporting the testing of new products on animals, simply because of the medical advances that have resulted from these tests (Without 1). Testing using computer software may give results on a new product more efficiently than testing on animals, but by saving a few animals we may have killed millions of humans. In testing on a computer that cannot react like a living creature, we may miss the opportunity to develop a cure for cancer, HIV, or AIDS. Although my point may be exaggerated with the cure for cancer, HIV, and AIDS, such major medical breakthroughs have occurred because of the tests done on animals (Without 1). I do not enjoy hearing or researching about killing and torturing animals, but I will not stand in the way of medical advancements for the human race. We have cloned a sheep, although this is not the only option to make up for the ones killed in order to save millions upon millions of human lives.

Currently, there is no definite solution to the issue of new product testing. Companies continue to test on animals. Due to the major advances, without animal testing these would not be possible (NABR 1). However, animal rights activist groups such as PETA and newsletters such as "All for Animals" will not stop with their protests until animal testing is completely obliterated.

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